CLASSICAL    WORKS. 

LATIN  TEXT-BOOKS. 

Harkness's  Introductory  Latin  Book,  intended  as  an  Elementary 
Drill-Book  on  the  Inflections  and  Principles  of  tlie  Language, 

Latin  Grammar,  for  Scliools  and  Colleges.    Revised 

Edition. 

Elements  of  Latin  Grammar,  for  Schools. 

Latin  Reader,  with  References,  Suggestions,  Notes, 

and  Vocabulary. 

Practical  Introduction  to  Latin  Composition,  for 

Schools  and  Colleges,  Part  I.  Elementary  Exercises,  intended 
as  a  Companion  to  the  Reader,  Part  II,  Latin  Syntax.  Part 
in.  Elements  of  Latin  Style,  with  special  Reference  to  Idioms 
and  Synonymes.    (Just  puhlished,) 

Caesar's  Commentaries  on  tlie  Gallic  War,  with 

Notes,  Dictionary,  Life  of  Csesar,  Map  of  Gaul,  Plans  of  Bat- 
tles, etc. 

Cicero's  Select  Orations,  with  Notes,  etc. 


Arnold's  First  and  Second  Latin  Book  and  Practical  Gram- 
mar.* Revised  and  corrected.  By  J.  A.  Spencek,  D,  D.  12mo, 
359  pages. 

Practical  Introduction  to  Latin  Prose  Composi- 
tion,* Revised  and  corrected.  By  J,  A,  Spencer,  D,  D.  12mo. 
356  pages. 

Cornelius  Nepos,*  with  Questions  and  Answers,  and  an  Imitative 
Exercise  on  each  Chapter.  "With  Notes  by  E.  A.  Johnson,  Pro- 
fessor of  Latin  in  University  of  New  York.  New  edition,  en- 
larged, with  a  Lexicon,  Historical  and  Geographical  Index,  etc. 
12mo.    350  pages. 

Beza's  Latin  Version  of  the  New  Testament.   l2mo.  291  pages. 

Caesar's  Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  War.  With  English 
Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory ;  a  Lexicon,  Geographical  and 
Historical  Indexes,  and  a  Map  of  Gaul.  By  J.  A.  Spenceb,  D.  D. 
12mo,    408  pages, 

Cicero's  Select  Orations.  With  Notes  for  the  use  of  Schools  and 
Colleges.  By  E.  A.  Johnson,  Professor  of  Latin  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  New  York,    12mo,    459  pages. 

Cicero  de  Officiis.  With  English  Notes,  mostly  translated  from 
Zump  and  Bonnell.  By  Thomas  A.  Thacheb,  of  Yale  College. 
12mo.    194  pages. 


STANDARD  CLASSICAL  WOBKS. 


Horace,  The  Works  of.  With  English  Notes,  for  the  use  of 
Schools  and  Colleges.  By  J.  L.  Lincoln,  Profes-sor  of  Latin 
Language  and  Literature  in  Brown  University.  12mo.  575  pages. 

Livy.  Selections  from  the  first  five  books,  together  with  the  twen- 
ty-first and  twenty-second  books  entire.  With  a  Lian  of  Rome, 
and  a  Map  of  the  Passage  of  Hannibal,  and  English  Notes  for 
the  use  of  Schools.  By  J.  L.  Lincoln,  Prof,  of  the  Latin  Lan- 
guage and  Literature  in  Brown  University.    12mo.    329  pages. 

Quitt^^^US  Curtius :  Life  and  Exploits  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
Edited  and  illustrated  with  English  Notes,  by  Willlajh  Heney 
Crosby.    12mo.    385  pages, 

Sallust's  Jugortha  a^d  Catilina.  With  Notes  and  a  Vocabu- 
lary.   By  Butler  and  Stukgus.     12mo.    397  pages. 

It  is  believed  that  this  will  be  found  superior  to  any  edition- 
heretofore  published  in  this  country. 

The  Histories  of  Tacitus.  With  Notes  for  Colleges.  By  W.  S. 
Tyler,  Professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in  Amherst  College. 
12mo.    458  pages. 

Tacitus's  Germania  and  Agricola,  With  Notes  for  Colleges. 
By  W.  S.  Tyler.    12mo.    193  pages. 

Virgil's  .Eneid.*    With  Explanatory  Notes.    By  Henry  Frieze, 
Professor  of  Latin  in  the  State  University  of  Michigan.    (Re- 
cently published.)    12mo.    598  pages. 
The  type  is  unusually  large  and  dit-tinct.    The  work  contains 

eighty-five  engravings,  which  delineate  the  usages,  customs,  weap- 
ons, arts,  and  mythology  of  the  ancients,  with  a  vividnesa  that  can 

be  attained  only  by  pictorial  illustrations. 


GREEK  TEXT-BOOKS. 

A  First  Greek  Book*  and  Introductory  Eeader.  By  A. 
Harkness,  Ph.D.,  author  of  "Arnold's  First  Latin  Book.'' 
"Second  Latin  Book,"  etc.  (Recently  published.)  12mo. 
276  panes.  "  v 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  according  to  the  text  of  Augustus  Hahn. 
With  Notes  and  a  Lexicon  by  Joun  J.  Owen,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
With  Map.    12mo. 

Arnold's  First  Greek  Book,*  on  the  Plan  of  the  First  Latin 
Book.     12mo.    297  pages. 

Arnold's  Practical  Introduction  to  Greek  Prose  Composi- 
tion.*   12mo.    297  pages. 

Second  Part  to  the  above.*    l2mo.    248  pages. 

BEE  END  OF  THIS  VOLUICE. 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


SCHOOLS  AND   COLLEGES, 


BY 

ALBEET  HAEKlSrESS,  Ph.D. 

PBOnSSSOB  IN  BEOWN  UNIVKB8ITT. 


REVISED    EDITION, 

BMBBAdNO 

IMPORTANT  RESULTS  OP  RECENT  PHILOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 


NEW   YORK: 

D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

1,  3,  AND  5  BOND  STREET. 

LONDON:    16   LITTLE    BRITAIN. 

1880. 


according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1864,  by 
D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern 
District  of  New  York. 

EDUCATION  LIBRf 

Enteeed,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874,  by 

D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Hsi 

PREFACE.       1-/^. 


The  work  now  offered  to  the  public  l>ad  its  origin  in  a  desire 
to  promote  the  cause  of  Classical  study.  It  has  long  been  the 
opinion  of  the  author,  in  common  with  numerous  classical  teachers, 
that  the  subject  of  Latin  Grammar,  often  regarded  as  dry  and  dif- 
ficult, may  be  presented  to  the  learner  in  a  form  at  once  simple, 
attractive,  and  philosophical.  It  is  the  aim  of  this  manual  to  aid 
the  instructor  in  the  attainment  of  this  most  desirable  end. 

That  the  present  is  a  favorable  time  for  the  production  of  a 
Latin  Grammar  scarcely  admits  of  a  doubt.  Never  before  were 
there  such  facilities  for  the  work.  The  last  quarter  of  a  century 
has  formed  an  epoch  in  the  study  of  language  and  in  the  methods 
of  instruction.  During  this  period  some  of  the  most  gifted  minds 
of  Germany  have  been  gathering  the  choicest  treasures  in  the  field 
of  philology,  while  others  have  been  equally  successful  in  devising 
improved  methods  of  instruction.  In  our  own  country  too,  the 
more  enterprising  teachers  have  caught  the  spirit  of  improvement, 
and  are  calling  loudly  for  a  better  method  than  has  hitherto  pre- 
vailed in  classical  study. 

Tlie  present  work  has  been  prepared  in  view  of  these  facts. 
To  explain  its  general  plan,  the  author  begs  leave  to  specify  the 
following  points. 

1.  This  volume  is  designed  to  present  a  systematic  arrangement 
of  the  great  facts  and  laws  of  the  Latin  language ;  to  exhibit  not 
only  grammatical  forms  and  constructions,  but  also  those  tiial 
principles  which  underlie,  control,  and  explain  them. 

2.  Designed  at  once  as  a  text-book  for  the  class-room,  and  a 
book  of  reference  in  study,  it  aims  to  introduce  the  beginner  easi- 
ly and  pleasantly  to  the  first  principles  of  the  language,  and  yet  to 
make  adequate  provision  for  the  wants  of  the  more  advanced 
student.  Accordingly  it  presents  in  large  type  a  general  survey 
of  the  whole  subject  in  a  brief  and  concise  statement  of  facts  and 


N[^'77Q2A 


IV  PEEFACE. 

laws,  while  parallel  with  this,  in  smaller  type,  it  furnishes  a  fuller 
discussion  of  irregularities  and  exceptions  for  later  study  and  for 
reference. 

3.  By  brevity  and  conciseness  in  the  choice  of  phraseology  and 
compactness  in  the  arrangement  of  forms  and  topics,  the  author 
has  endeavored  to  compress  within  the  limits  of  a  convenient 
manual  an  amount  of  carefully  selected  grammatical  facts,  which 
iwould  otherwise  fill  a  much  larger  volume. 

4.  He  has,  moreover,  endeavored  to  present  the  whole  subject 
in  the  light  of  modern  scholarship.  Without  encumbering  his 
pages  with  any  unnecessary  discussions,  he  has  aimed  to  enrich 
them  with  the  practical  results  of  the  recent  labors  in  the  field  of 
philology. 

5.  In  the  regular  paradigms,  both  of  declension  and  of  conjuga- 
tion, the  stems  and  endings  have  been  distinguished  by  a  difference 
of  type,  thus  keeping  constantly  before  the  pupil  the  significance  of 
the  two  essential  elements  which  enter  into  the  composition  of 
inflected  forms. 

6.  Syntax  has  received  in  every  part  special  attention.  An  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  exhibit,  as  clearly  as  possible,  that  beauti- 
ful system  of  laws  which  the  genius  of  the  language^-that  highest 
of  all  gram.matical  authority — ^has  created  for  itself.  The  leading 
principles  ©f  construction  have  been  put  in  the  form  of  definite 
rules,  and  illustrated  by  carefully  selected  examples.  To  secure 
convenience  of  reference  and  to  give  completeness  and  vividness 
to  the  general  outline,  these  rules,  after  being  separately  discussed, 
are  presented  in  a  body  at  the  close  of  the  Syntax. 

7.  The  subdivisions  in  each  discussion  are  developed,  as  far  as 
practicable,  from  the  leading  idea  which  underlies  the  whole  sub- 
ject. Thus  in  the  treatment  of  cases,  moods,  and  tenses,  various 
usee,  comparatively  distinct  in  themselves,  are  found  to  centre 
around  some  leading  idea  or  thought,  thus  imparting  to  the  sub- 
ject both  unity  and  simplicity. 

8.  Topics  which  require  extended  illustration  are  first  present- 
ed ia  their  completeness  in  general  outline,  before  the  separate 
points  are  discussed  in  detail.  Thus  a  single  page  often  foreshad- 
ows all  the  leading  features  of  an  extended  discussion,  imparting  a 
completeness  and  vividness  to  the  impression  of  the  learner,  im- 
possible under  any  other  treatment. 

9.  Special  care  has  been  taken  to  explain  and  illustrate  with 


PREFACE.  V 

the  requisite  fulness  all  difficult  and  intricate  subjects.  The  Sub- 
junctive Mood — that  severest  trial  of  the  teacher's  patience— has 
been  presented,  it  is  hoped,  in  a  form  at  once  simple  and  compre- 
hensive. The  different  uses  have  not  only  been  carefully  classified, 
but  also  distinguished  by  characteristic  and  appropriate  terms, 
convenient  for  the  class-room. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  prefer  to  begin  with  a  more  ele- 
mentary manual  in  the  study  of  Latin,  it  is  in  contemplation  to 
publish  a  smaller  Grammar  on  precisely  the  same  plan  as  the  pres- 
ent work,  and  with  the  same  mode  of  treatment.  This  will  be 
especially  adapted  to  the  wants  of  those  who  do  not  contemplate 
a  collegiate  course  of  study. 

A  Latin  Reader,  prepared  with  special  reference  to  this  work 
and  intended  as  a  companion  to  it,  will  be  published  at  an  early  day. 

In  conclusion  the  author  cheerfully  acknowledges  his  indebted- 
ness to  other  scholars,  who  have  labored  in  the  same  field.  The 
classification  of  verbs  is  founded  in  part  on  that  of  Grotefend  and 
Kruger,  a  mode  of  treatment  generally  adopted  in  the  recent  Ger- 
man works  on  the  subject,  and  well  exhibited  by  Allen  in  his 
Analysis  of  Latin  Verbs. 

In  Prosody  much  aid  has  been  derived  from  the  excellent 
works  of  Ramsay  and  Habenicht. 

On  the  general  subjects  of  Etymology  and  Syntax,  his  indebted- 
ness is  less  direct,  though  perhaps  no  less  real.  His  views  of  phi- 
lology have  been  formed  in  a  great  measure  under  the  moulding 
influence  of  the  great  German  masters;  and  perhaps  few  Latin 
Grammars  of  any  repute  have  appeared  within  the  last  half  cen- 
tury, either  in  this  country,  England,  or  Germany,  from  which  he 
has  not  received  valuable  suggestions.  In  the  actual  work  of 
preparation,  however,  he  has  carried  out  his  own  plan,  and  pre- 
sented his  own  modes  of  treatment,  but  he  has  aimed  to  avoid  all 
untried  novelties  and  to  admit  only  that  which  is  sustained  by  the 
liighest  authority,  and  confirmed  by  the  actual  experience  of  the 
class-room. 

The  author  is  happy  to  express  his  grateful  acknowledgments 
to  the  numerous  Instructors  who  have  favored  him  with  valuable 
suggestions ;  especially  to  his  esteemed  friend  and  colleague.  Pro- 
fessor J.  L.  Lincoln,  of  this  University. 

Providknce,  R.  I.,  May  10th,  1861 


PEEFAOE 

TO    THE    REVISED    EDITION, 


Parts  First  and  Second  in  this  edition  have  been  en- 
tirely rewritten.  The  recent  researches  in  Comparative 
Philology  have  thrown  new  light  upon  Latin  forms  and 
inflections,  and  have  revealed  many  important  facts  in  the 
development  and  growth  of  the  language.  Accordingly, 
in  the  present  revision,  it  has  been  the  constant  aim  of  the 
author  to  secure  for  the  learner  the  full  benefit  of  all  the 
practical  results  which  these  labors  in  the  field  of  philology 
have  brought  within  the  proper  sphere  of  the  school.  The 
general  plan  and  scope  of  the  work,  however,  remain  the 
same  as  in  former  editions.  Only  such  changes  and  addi- 
tions have  been  made  as  seemed  to  promise  desirable  aid 
to  the  learner.  Care  has  been  taken  to  exclude  from  the 
work  every  thing  which  might  divert  his  attention  from 
the  one  object  before  him — the  attainment  of  a  full  and 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  language. 

In  this  connection,  the  author  desires  to  express  anew 
his  grateful  acknowledgments  to  the  teachers  and  educa- 
tors whose  verdict  of  approval  has  contributed  so  largely 
to  the  success  of  his  works.  To  their  hands  this  new  edi- 
tion is  now  respectfully  committed. 

A.  HARKNESS. 

Bbown  Univkbsitt,  July^  1874. 


CONTENTS. 


PART     FIRST. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Page. 

Alphabet, 1 

English  Method  of  Pronunciation, 2 

Roman  Method, 5 

Continental  Method, 7 

Quantity,  Accentuation, 7 

Euphonic  Laws, 8 

I.  Changes  in  Vowels, 8 

II.  Changes  in  Consonants, 9 

PART     SECOND. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER      I. 

NOUNS. 

Gender, 11 

Person,  Number,  and  Case, 12 

Declension, 12 

First  Declension, 13 

Greek  Nouns, 14 

Second  Declension, 15 

Greek  Nouns,       .                 17 

Third  Declension, 18 

Class  I. — Consonant  Stems, 18 

Stems  in  a  Labial, 18 

Stems  in  a  Dental, 19 

Stems  in  a  Guttural, 20 

Stems  in  a  Liquid, 20 

Stems  in  S, 22 

Class  Il.—I-Stems, 22 

Special  Paradigms, 26 

Greek  Nouns, 27 

Synopsis  of  the  Third  Declension, 28 

Gender, 34 

Fourth  Declension, .  36 

Fifth  Declension, 88 

Comparative  View  of  Declensions, »  39 

General  Table  of  Gender, 40 


X  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Declension  of  Compound  Nouns, 41 

Irregular  Nouns, 41 

I.  Indeclinable, 42 

II.  Defective, 42 

III.  Heteroclites, 44 

IV.  Heterogeneous, 44 

CHAPTER    II. 

ADJECTIVES. 

First  and  Second  Declensions, 46 

Third  Declension, 48 

Irregular  Adjectives, 51 

Comparison, 52 

I,  Terminational  Comparison, 52 

II.  Adverbial  Comparison, 54 

Numerals, 55 

CHAPTER    III. 

PRONOUNS. 

Personal  Pronouns, 60 

Possessive, 61 

Demonstrative, 62 

Relative, .  64 

Interrogative, 65 

Indefinite,  .        .        .        . ' 66 

CHAPTER    IV. 


Voices,  Moods, 67 

Tenses, 68 

Numbers,  Persons, 69 

Conjugation, 69 

Paradigms  of  Verbs, 10 

Verbal  Inflections, .  88 

Synopsis  of  Conjugation, 90 

Verbs  in  io :  Conjugation  III,, 93 

Deponent  Verbs, 96 

Periphrastic  Conjugation, 99 

Contractions  and  Peculiarities  of  Conjugation,         .         .         .         .100 

Comparative  View  of  Conjugations, 101 

Analysis  of  Verbal  Endings,   .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .103 

I.  Tense-Signs,      ........        103 

II.  Mood-Signs,  .         .         . 103 

III.  Personal  Endings, 104 

Formation  of  Stems,       .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .106 

I.  Present  Stem,    .        .        .        ...        .        .        106 

II.  Perfect  Stem,        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .107 

III.  Supine  Stem,     .        .         .        .        .        .        .        .        108 

Euphonic  Changes,         .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .     109 


CONTENTS.  XI 

Pago. 

Classification  of  Verbs, 110 

First  Conjugation, 110 

Second  Conjugation, 112 

Third  Conjugation, 115 

Fourth  Conjugation, 126 

Irregular    Verbs, 127 

Defective        " 133 

Impersonal     "      .        .        • 135 

CHAPTER    V. 

PARTICLES. 

Adverbs, 137 

Prepositions, 138 

Conjunctions, 139 

Interjections, 140 

CHAPTER  VI. 

FORMATION     OF     W0ED8. 

Derivation  of  "Words, 141 

Derivative  Nouns, 141 

Derivative  Adjectives, 145 

Derivative  Verbs, 147 

Derivative  Adverbs, 149 

Composition  of  Words, 151 

Compound  Noims, l'^'^ 

Compound  Adjectives, 153 

Compound  Verbs, 153 

Compound  Adverbs, 153 

PART     THIRD. 
SYNTAX. 

CHAPTER    I 

SYNTAX   OF  SKI^TENCKS. 
Section. 

I.  Classification  of  Sentences, 15* 

II.  Simple  Sentences, 156 

HI.  Complex  Sentences, 158 

rV.  Compound  Sentences, 159 

CHAPTER   II. 

SYNTAX  OF  N0TJN8. 

I.  Agreement  of  Nouns, 160 

Predicate  Nouns,          . 160 

Appositives, 161 

n.  Nominative, 162 


xu 


CONTENTS. 


Section. 

III.  Vocative, 

IV.  Accusative, 

I.  Direct  Object,    .... 

Two  Accusatives, 
II.  Subject  of  Infinitive, 

III.  Agreement  of  Accusative, 

IV.  Accusative  in  an  Adverbial  sense. 

With  or  without  Prepositions,    . 

Accusative  of  Time  and  Space, 

Accusative  of  Limit, 

Accusative  of  Specification,    . 
V.  Accusative  in  Exclamations, 

V.  Dative, 

I.  Dative  with  Verbs — Indirect  Object, 

Dative  of  Advantage,     . 

Dative  with  Compounds,    . 

Dative  of  Possessor, 

Dative  of  Agent, 

Ethical  Dative, 

Two  Datives,     .... 
II.  Dative  with  Adjectives, 
III.  Dative  with  Nouns  and  Adverbs,    . 

VI.  Genitive, 

I.  Genitive  with  Nouns,     . 
II.  Genitive  with  Adjectives,  . 

III.  Genitive  with  Verbs,     . 

Predicate  Genitive, 

Genitive  of  Place, 

Genitive  in  Special  Constructions, 

Genitive  and  Accusative,   . 

IV.  Genitive  with  Adverbs, 

VII.  Ablative, 


I.  Ablative  of  Cause,  Manner,  Means, 

Ablative  of  Price, 

Ablative  with  Comparatives,  . 

Ablative  of  Difference, 

Ablative  in  Special  Constructions, 
II.  Ablative  of  Place, 

Ablative  of  Source  and  Separation, 

III.  Ablative  of  Time, 

IV.  Ablative  of  Characteristic, 
V.  Ablative  of  Specification, 

VI.  Ablative  Absolute,  . 
VII.  Ablative  with  Prepositions, 
VIII.  Cases  with  Prepositions,     . 


CHAPTER  III. 

SYNTAX   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

Agreement  of  Adjectives, 201 

Use  of  Adjectives, 202 

Comparison, 203 


CONTENTS, 


Zlll 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SYNTAX  OP  PRONOUNS. 


Agreement  of  Pronouns, 
Personal  and  Possessive  Pronouns, 

Reflexive  Use, 
Demonstrative  Pronouns, 
Relative  Pronouns, 
Interrogative  Pronouns, 
Indefinite  Pronouns,    . 


Section. 


CHAPTER  V. 

SYNTAX     OF     VERBS. 


I. 

II. 
III. 
IV. 

V. 

VI. 


VII. 


VHI. 


IX. 
X. 

XL 
XII. 


Agreement  of  Verbs, 

Use  of  Voices, 

Tenses  of  the  Indicative, 

Use  of  the  Indicative, 

Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive, 

Sequence  of  Tenses, 

Use  of  the  Subjunctive, 

I.  Potential  Subjunctive,     .... 

II.  Subjunctive  of  Desire,         .... 

III.  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  or  Result,  . 

IV.  Subjunctive  of  Condition,    .... 
V.  Subjunctive  of  Concession, 

VI.  Subjunctive  of  Cause  and  Time, 
VII.  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Questions,  . 
VIII.  Subjunctive  by  Attraction, 
IX.  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Discourse,   . 

Moods  and  Tenses  in  the  Oratio  Obliqua, 
Pronouns,  Adverbs,  etc.,  in  Oratio  Oblique 
Imperative, 

I.  Tenses  of  the  Imperative,    .        ,        .        • 

II.  Use  of  the  Imperative, 

Infinitive, 

I.  Tenses  of  the  Infinitive,         .... 

II.  Subject  of  the  Infinitive,    .... 

III.  Predicate  after  the  Infinitive, 

IV.  Construction  of  the  Infinitive,     . 
Subject  and  Object  Clauses,  ..... 
Gerund, 

Gerundive, 

Supine, 

Participles, 


Page. 

204 
206 
206 
208 
209 
210 
211 


212 
214 
215 
219 
219 
220 
223 
223 
225 
226 
232 
236 
238 
242 
244 
245 
246 
248 
248 
248 
249 
250 
251 
252 
253 
254 
258 
262 
263 
266 
267 


CHAPTER  VI.  • 

SYNTAX   OF   PAKTICLES. 


Adverbs,     . 
Prepositions, 
Conjunctions, 
Interjections, 


210 
271 
271 
274 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   VII. 

PagA 

Rules  of  Syntax, 2V4 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

AEEANGEMENT   OF   WORDS   AND   CLAUSES. 
Section. 

I.  Arrangement  of  Words, 281 

II.  Arrangement  of  Clauses, 286 

PART     FOURTH. 

PROSODY. 

CHAPTER    I. 

QUANTITY. 

I.  General  Rules  of  Quantity, 287 

n.  Special  Rules  of  Quantity, 289 

I.  Quantity  of  Final  Syllables, 289 

II.  Quantity  in  Increments, 292 

III.  Quantity  of  Derivative  Endings, 295 

IV.  Quantity  of  Stem  Syllables, 297 

CHAPTER   II. 

VERSIFICATION. 

I.  General  View  of  the  Subject, 300 

I.  Metrical  Feet, 300 

II.  Verses, 302 

III.  Figures  of  Prosody, 304 

II.  Varieties  of  Verse, 305 

I.  Dactylic  Verse, 305 

II.  Anapaestic  Verse, 308 

HI.  Trochaic  Verse, 308 

IV.  Iambic  Verse, 309 

V.  Ionic  Verse, 312 

VI.  Choriambic  Verse, 312 

VII.  Logaeodic  Verse, 313 

VIII.  Miscellaneous  Verses, 315 

III.  Versification  of  Virgil,  Horace,  Ovid,  and  Juvenal,        .        .  315 

APPENDIX. 

Figures  of  Speech, 320 

Latin  Authors, 322 

Roman  Calendar, 323 

Roman  Money,  Weights,  and  Measures, 325 

Abbreviations, 327 

Index  of  Verbs, ^        .         .  328 

index  of  Subjects,  ...»...'...  336 

Table  of  corresponding  articles  in  the  two  editions,      ,        .        ,  356 


LATIN  GEAMMAE. 


I.  Latin  Grammar  treats   of   the   principles   of  the 
Latin  language.     It  comprises  four  parts  : 

L  Orthography,  which  treats  of  the  letters  and  sounds 
of  the  language. 

II.  Etymology,  which  treats  of  the  classification,  inflec- 
tion, and  derivation  of  words. 

III.  Syntax,  which  treats  of  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences. 

IV.  Peosody,  which  treats  of  quantity  and  versification. 


PART  FIRST. 
OETHOGEAPHT. 


ALPHABET. 

2.  The  Latin  alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English  with 
the  omission  of  w. 

1.  U  supplies  the  place  of  w. 

2.  H  is  only  a  breathing,  and  not  strictly  entitled  to  the  rank  of  a 
letter. 

3.  Originally  i  and  u  were  used  both  as  vowels  and  as  consonants, 
and  accordingly  supplied  the  place  of  ^  and  v. 

4.  K'la  seldom  used,  and  y  and  z  occur  only  in  words  of  Greek  origin. 


2  ENGLISH   METHOD   OF   PRONUNCIATION. 

3.  Classes  of  Letters. — Letters  are  divided  into  two 
classes  : 

I.  Vowels, a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y. 

II.  Consonants: 

1.  Liquids^ 1,  m,  n,  r. 

2.  Spirants, h,  f,  v,  j,  s. 

3.  Mutes:  1)  Labials — lip-letters,       .         .         .     b,  p,  f,  v. 

2)  Dentals — teeth-letters,         .        .        d,  t. 

3)  Gutturals — throat-letters,        .         •     c,  g,  k,  q,  h. 

4.  Double  Consonants, x,  z. 

4.  Combinations  of  Letters. — We  notice  here, 

1.  Diphthongs — combinations  of  two  vowels  in  one  syllable.  The  most 
common  are — ae,  oe,  au. 

2.  Double  Consonants — x  =  cs  or  gs  ;  z  =  ds  or  sd. 

3.  Ch,  ph,  th  are  best  treated,  not  as  combinations  of  letters,  but  only 
as  aspirated  forms  of  c,  p,  and  t,  as  h  is  only  a  breathing. 

6.  Pronunciation. — Scholars  in  different  countries 
generally  pronounce  Latin  substantially  as  they  do  their 
own  languages.  In  this  country,  however,  three  distinct 
Methods  are  recognized,  generally  known  as  the  English^ 
the  Homan,  and  the  Continental,^  For  the  convenience 
of  the  instructor,  we  add  a  brief  outline  of  each. 

ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PKONUNCIATION. 

1.  Sounds  of  the  Vowels. 

6.  Vowels  generally  have  their  long  or  short  English 
sounds.     But 

1.  These  sounds  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  are  somewhat  modified  by  the 
consonants  which  accompany  them. 

2.  Before  r,  final,  or  followed  by  another  consonant,  e,  i,  and  u  are 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  each  other,  as  in  the  English  her,  fir,  fur, 
while  a  and  o  are  pronounced  as  in  far,  for. 

3.  Between  qu  and  dr,  or  rt,  a  approaches  the  sound  of  o :  quar'-tus, 
as  in  quarter. 

7.  Long   Sounds. — Vowels   have  their  long   English 

1  strictly  speaking,  there  is  no  Continental  Method,  as  every  nation  on  the  Conti- 
nent of  Europe  has  its  own  method. 


ENGLISH    METHOD    OF   PRONUNCIATION.  3 

sounds — a  as  in  fate^  e  in  mete^  i  in  pine^  o  in  note^  u  in 
tube^  y  in  type — in  the  following  situations  : 

1.  In  final  syllables  ending  in  a  vowel :  56,  s^,  ser'-vi, 
ser'-vo,  cor'-nu,  mi'-sy. 

2.  In  all  syllables,  before  a  vowel  or  diphthong  :  de'-its, 
de-o'-rum,  de'-ae,  dl-e'-i,  ni'-hi-lum,^ 

3.  In  penultimate "  syllables  before  a  single  consonant 
or  a  mute  with  I  or  r:  pa'-ter,  pa-'tres,  A'-thos,  O'-thrys. 

4.  In  unaccented  syllables,  not  final,  before  a  single 
consonant,  or  a  mute  with  I  or  r:  do-lo'-ris,  a-grlc'-o-la. 

1)  A  unaccented  has  the  sound  of  a  final  in  America:  men'-sa. 

2)  I  and  y  unaccented  in  any  syllable  except  the  first  and  last  gener- 
ally have  the  short  sound :  nob'-i-lis  (nob'-e-lis),  Am'-y-cm  (Am'-e-cus). 

3)  U,  etc. — ^U  has  the  short  sound  before  hi ;  and  the  other  vowels 
before  ^r^  and  tl:  Fub-Hc' -o-la,  Ag-la' -o-phon,  At' -las. 

4)  L — Between  an  accented  a,  e,  o,  or  y,  and  another  vowel,  t  some- 
times stands  for^.  It  is  then  pronounced  like  y  in  yet :  A-cha'-ia  (A-ka'-ya), 
Pom-pe'-ius  (Pom-pe'-yus),  La-to'-ia  (La-to'-ya),  Har-py'-ia  (Har-py'-ya). 

5)  U. — After  q  and  generally  after  g,  u  has  the  sound  of  w;  qui 
(kwi),  qua  ;  Un'-gua  (lin'-gwa),  lin'-guis.  Sometimes  also  after  s ;  sua'-de-o 
(swa'-de-o). 

6)  Compound  Words. — ^When  the  first  part  of  a  compound  is  entire 
and  ends  in  a  consonant,  any  vowel  before  such  consonant  has  generally 
the  short  sound :  a  in  ab'-cs,  e  in  red' -it,  i  in  in' -it,  o  in  ob' -it,  prod' -est.  But 
those  final  syllables  which,  as  exceptions,  have  the  long  sound  before  a 
consonant  (8,  1),  retain  that  sound  in  compounds :  post'-quam,  hos'-ce, 
E'-ti-am  and  quo'-ni-am  are  generally  pronounced  as  sunple  words. 

8.  Short  Sounds. — ^Vowels  have  their  short  English 
sounds — a  as  in  fat^  e  in  met,  i  in  pin,  o  in  not,  u  in  tub, 
y  in  myth — in  the  following  situations  : 

1.  In  final  syllables  ending  in  a  consonant :  a' -mat, 
a' -met,  rex' -it,  sol,  con'-sul,  Te'-thys :  except  post,  es  final, 
and  OS  final  in  plural  cases  :  res,  dl'-es,  hos,  a'-gros. 

2.  In  all  syllables  before  x,  or  any  two  consonants  ex- 

1  In  these  rules  no  account  is  taken  of  h,  as  that  is  only  a  breathing:  hence  the  first 
i  in  nihilum  is  treated  as  a  vowel  before  another  vowel .  for  the  same  reason,  cA,  p?i, 
and  fh  are  treated  as  single  mutes ;  thus  th  In  Athoa  and  Othrys. 

2  Penultimate,  the  last  syllable  but  one. 


4  ENGLISH   METHOD    OF   PRONUNCIATION. 

cept  a  mute  with  ^  or  r  (7,  3  and  4) :  rey^-it,  hel'-lum,  rex-e'- 
runt,  hel-lo'-rum, 

3.  In  all  accented  syllables,  not  penultimate,  before  one 
or  more  consonants  :  dom'-t-nus,  pat'-ri-bus. 

1)  A,  e,  or  o,  before  a  single  consonant  (or  a  mute  with  I  or  r)  fol- 
lowed by  €,  i,  or  y,  before  another  vowel,  has  the  long  sound :  a'-ci-es, 
a'-cri-a^  me'-re-o,  do'-ce-o. 

2)  U,  in  any  syllable  not  final,  before  a  single  consonant  or  a  mute 
with  I  or  r,  except  bl,  has  the  long  sound :  Pu'-ni-cuSy  sa-lu'-bri-tas. 

3)  Compounds.    See  T,  6.) 

2.  Sounds  of  the  Diphthongs. 

9.  Ae  like  e  :  Cae'-sar,  Daed'-d-lics.^ 
Oe  like  e  ;   Oe'-ta,  Oed'-i-pus.^ 
Au,  as  in  author  :  au'-rum, 

Eu,  .  .  .  neuter :  neu'-ter, 

1.  Ei  and  oi  are  seldom  diphthongs,  but  when  so  used  they  are  pro- 
nounced as  in  height,  coin :  heiy  proin.    See  Synaeresis,  669,  II. 

2.  Ui,  as  a  diphthong  with  the  long  sound  of  i,  occurs  in  cui,  hui,  huic. 

3.  Sounds  of  the  Consonants. 

10.  The  consonants  are  pronounced  in  general  as  in 
English,  but  a  few  directions  may  aid  the  learner. 

11.  C,  G,  Sy  T,  and  X  are  generally  pronounced  with 
their  ordinary  English  sounds.     Thus 

1.  O  and  g  are  mft  (like  s  and  j)  before  c,  %  y,  ae,  and  oe,  and  hard  in 
other  situations :  ce'-do  (se'-do),  ci'-vis^  Cy'-rus,  cae'-do,  coe'-pi^  a'-ge  (a'-je), 
a'-gi ;  ca'do  (ka'-do),  co'-go^  cum,  Ga'-des.     But 

1)  Ch  is  hard  like  h  :  Cho'-rus  (ko'-rus),  G7d'-os  (Ki'-os). 

2)  G  has  the  soft  sound  before  g  soft :  ag'-ger. 

2.  S  generally  has  its  English  sound,  as  in  son,  this :  sa'-cer,  si'-dus. 

1)  S  final,  after  e,  ae,  au,  h,  m,  n,  r,  is  pronounced  like  z :  spes,  praes, 
laus,  urhs,  M'-ems,  mons,  pars. 

2)  In  a  few  words  s  has  the  sound  of  z,  because  so  pronounced  in 
English  words  derived  from  them :  Cae'-sar,  Caesar ;  cau'-sa,  cause ;  nrn'-sa, 
muse ;  mi'-ser,  miser,  etc. 

1  The  diphthong  has  the  long  sound  in  Cae'-sar  and  Oe'-ta  according  to  7,  3,  but 
the  short  sound  in  Daed'-d-lus  (Ded'-a-lus)  and  Oed'-i-pus  (Ed'-i-pus)  according  to 
8,  3,  as  6  would  be  thus  pronounced  in  the  same  situations. 


ROMAN  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.  5 

3.  T  has  its  regular  English  sound,  as  in  time :  ti'-mor,  io'-tus. 

4.  X  has  generally  its  regular  English  sound  like  ks :  rex'-i  (rek'-si). 
But  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  it  has  the  sound  of  z :  Xan'-thus. 

12.  O,  S,  T,  X — Aspirated. — Before  i  preceded  by 
an  accented  syllable  and  followed  by  a  vowel,  c,  s,  t,  and 
X  are  aspirated — c,  5,  and  t  taking  the  sound  of  sh,  x  that 
of  ksh:  so'-ci'US  (so'-she-us),  Al'-si-um  (Al'-she-um),  «r'-^i- 
um  (ar'-she-um),  anx'-i-us  (ank'-she-us).  C  has  also  the 
sound  of  sh  before  eu  and  yo  preceded  by  an  accented 
syllable  :  ca-du'-ce-us  (ca-du'-she-us),  Sic'-y-on  (Sish'-e-on). 

1.  T  loses  the  aspirate — (1)  after  «,  <,  or  x;  Os'-ii-a,At'-ti-u8,mix'- 
ti^: — (2)  in  old  infinitives  in  ier ;  Jlec'-ii-er: — (3)  generally  in  proper 
names  in  tion  (tyon) ;  Phi-lis'-ti-on,  Am-phic' -ty-on. 

4.  Syllables. 

13.  In  Latin,  every  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  it 
has  vowels  and  diphthongs  :  mo' -re,  per-sua'-de,  men'-sae. 

14.  In  the  division  of  words  into  syllables  ; 

1.  After  a  vowel  (or  diphthong),  with  the  Long  Sound  (7),  consonants 
are  joined  to  the  following  vowel :  pa'-ter,  pa' -ires,  a-gro'-rum,  au-di'-vi. 

2.  After  a  vowel  with  the  Short  Sound  (8), 

1)  ^  single  or  dovhle  consonant  is  joined  to  such  vowel,  except  after  i 
unaccented :  gen'-e-ri^  rex'-i^  dom' -i-nus. 

2)  Two  consonants  are  separated :  bel'-lum,  men'-sa,  pat'-ri-hus.  But 
X  following  a  consonant  is  joined  to  the  preceding  syllable :  Xerx'-es. 

3)  Of  three  or  more  consonants^  the  last,  or,  if  a  mute  with  I  or  r,  the 
last  two  are  joined  to  the  following  vowel :  emp'-tus^  tem'-plum^  claus'-tra. 

3.  But  compound  words  are  separated  into  their  component  parts,  if 
the  first  of  those  parts  is  entire,  and  ends  in  a  consonant :  hos'-ce,  post'- 
quam. 

ROMAN  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

1.  Sounds  of  the  Vowels. 

15.  The  vowel  sounds  are  the  following  : 


LONG. 

SHORT. 

a  like  a  in  father  :  a'-ris. 

S  like  a  in  fast : 

d!-met. 

e         a      made  :    e'-di. 

3        e       net : 

re'-get. 

LONG. 

i  like  e  in  me  : 

i-ri. 

6          0       rode  : 

o'-rds. 

ti         0       do : 

u'-no. 

ROMAN  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

SHORT. 

i  like  i  in  divert  :      vi'-dU. 
6         o      romance:  md'-net. 
U         u     full:  s'tL'-nrtis. 

1.  When  a  short  vowel  is  lengthened  by  position  (21,  2),  it  retains  its 
short  sound :  sunt.,  u  as  in  su'-mus. 

2.  Y,  found  only  in  Greek  words,  is  in  sound  intermediate  between  the 
Latin  u  and  i :  Nysa. 

3.  I.— Between  an  accented  a,  e,  o,  or  y,  and  another  vowel,  i  gener- 
ally stands  for  J.  It  is  then  pronounced  like  y  in  yet  (lY):  A-cha'-id 
(A-ka'-ya). 

4.  U.— After  q,  and  generally  after  ff,  u  has  the  sound  of  w :  qui 
(kwe),  lln'-ffuS,  (lin'-gwa).  So  also  in  cui,  hui,  hulc,  and  sometimes  after 
s :  sua'-dS-o  (swa'-de-o). 

2.  Sounds  of  the  Diphthongs. 

16.  In  diphthongs  each  vowel  retains  its  own  sound  : 
ae  (for  ai)  like  the  English  aye  (yes)  :  men'-sae^ 
au  like  ow  in  how  :  cau'-sd. 

oe  (for  oi)  like  oi  in  coin  :  foe'-diXs, 
1.  Ei,  as  in  veil.,  and  eu,  with  the  sounds  of  e  and  u  combined,  occur 
in  a  few  words :  dein,  neu'-tSr. 

3.  Sounds  of  the  Consonants. 

17.  Most  of  the  consonants  are  pronounced  nearly  as 
in  English,  but  the  following  require  special  notice  : 

C  like  k  in  king  :   ce'-les     (kalas),    cl'-vl    (kewe). 


g 

9 

get: 

g^'-7iijis,  r^-gis. 

j 

y 

yet  : 

jd'-cet    (yaket), 

jus'-sum. 

8 

s 

son: 

sd'-cer,  sd'-ror. 

t 

t 

time  : 

tl'-mdr,  to'-ms. 

V 

to 

we  : 

vd'-ditm,  vi'-cl. 

4.  Syllables. 

18.  In  dividing  words  into  syllables 

1.  Make  as  many  syllables  as  there  are  vowels  and  diphthongs ;  mo'-rS^ 
per-suCl'-de.,  men'-sae. 

*  Combining  the  sounds  of  a  and  i. 


CONTINENTAL   METHOD    OP   PRONUNCIATION.  7 

2.  Join  to  each  vowel  as  many  of  the  consonants  which  precede  it — 
one  or  more — as  can  be  conveniently  pronounced  at  the  beginning  of  a 
word  or  syllable :  *  p&'-tSr,  p&'-ires,  gS'-nS-rl^  dd'-mt-nus,  no'snt,  si'stts, 
clau'sti'dj  men's&y  heV -lum,  jus' sum^  iem'-plum,  anp'-ius.     But 

3.  Compound  words  must  be  separated  into  their  component  parts,  if 
the  first  of  these  parts  is  entire  and  ends  in  a  consonant :  ab'-Ss,  6b-i'-rS. 

CONTINENTAL  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

1 9.  The  Continental  Method,  as  adopted  in  this  coun- 
try, is  almost  identical  with  the  Roman,  except  in  the  pro- 
nunciation of  the  consonants,  in  which  it  more  nearly 
coincides  with  the  English.     See  15,  16,  10,  11, 12,  and  18. 

QUANTITY. 

20.  Syllables  are  in  quantity  or  length  either  long, 
short,  or  common.' 

21.  Long. — A  syllable  is  long  in  quantity 

1.  If  it  contains  a  dipththong  :  haec. 

2.  If  its  vowel  is  followed  hy  j,  a?,  z,  or  any  two  conso- 
nants, except  a  mute  with  I  or  r:  rex,  motis. 

22.  Short. — A  syllable  is  short,  if  its  vowel  is  followed 
by  another  vowel  or  a  diphthong  :  di'-es,  vi'-ae,  ni'-hll.* 

23.  Common. — A  syllable  is  common,  if  its  vowel,  natu- 
rally short,  is  followed  by  a  mute  with  ^  or  r  ;  a'-grl. 

1.  The  signs  ",  ^,  ^  are  used  to  mark  quantity,  the  first  denoting  that 
the  syllable  over  which  it  is  placed  is  long,  the  second  that  it  is  shorty  and 
the  third  that  it  is  common :  a^rS-rum. 

ACCENTUATION. 

24.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  always  accented  on  th© 


*  By  some  grammariaas  a  mute  and  a  liquid  are  always  joined  to  the  following 
vowel,  as  also  any  combination  of  consonants  which  can  begin  a  Greek  word:  i'-ffnU, 
o'-mnis,  i'-psS,  but  there  is  little  evidence  that  the  ancient  Eomans  divided  words  in 
this  way. 

2  Common,  i.  e.,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short.  For  rules  of  quantity  see 
Prosody.    Two  or  three  leading  facts  are  here  given  for  the  convenience  of  the  learner. 

•  No  account  is  taken  of  the  breathing  h  (2,  2). 


8  EUPHONIC   LAWS. 

25.  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented  on 
the  Penult  ^  if  that  is  long  in  quantity,  otherwise  on  the 
Antepenult 2"^  h6-n6''ris,  con'-su-lis. 

1.  Genitives  in  *  for  ii  and  vocatives  in  i  for  ie  retain  the  accent  of  the 
full  form :  in-ge'-nl  for  in-ge'-ni-i ;  Mer-cu'-ri  for  Mer-cu'-ri-e. 

2.  Penults  common  in  quantity  take  the  accent  when  used  as  long. 

3.  Compounds  are  accented  like  simple  words ;  but 

1)  The  enclitics,  que^  v^,  n^,  throw  back  their  accents  upon  the  last 
syllable  of  the  word  to  which  they  are  appended :  hom! -i-n^' -que^  mcn- 
'ia'-qu^. 

2)  FUcio,  compounded  with  other  words  than  prepositions,  retains  its 
own  accent :  c^l-S-fa' -cit. 

4.  A  second  accent  is  placed  on  the  second  or  third  syllable  before 
the  primary  accent, — on  the  second,  if  that  is  the  first  syllable  of  the 
word,  or  is  long  in  quantity,  otherwise  on  the  third :  mon' -u-e' -runt ;  mon'- 
u-^-rd'-mus  ;  in^stau' -rd-ve' -runt. 

5.  In  the  same  way,  a  third  accent  is  placed  on  the  second  or  third 
syllable  before  the  second  accent :  hon'-o-rtf'-i-cen-tis'-si-mus. 

EUPHOOTO  LAWS. 

26.  Latin  words  have  undergone  important  changes  in  accord- 
^ce  with  certain  euphonic  laws. 

I.  Changes  in  Vowels. 

27.  Vowels  are  often  lengthened,  especially  in  compensation 
for  the  dropping  of  consonants:  servoms,  servos;  regems^  reges. 

28.  Vowels  are  sometimes  changed  through  the  influence  of 
the  consonants  which  follow  them.  Thus  e  is  the  favorite  vowel 
before  r,  i  before  «,  u  before  I,  especially  before  I  followed  by 
another  consonant :  cintSy  cineris  for  cinisis  (35),  ashes ;  vuU  for 
voU^  he  wishes. 

1,  E  Jinal  is  a  favorite  vowel:  serve  for  servo,  0  slave:  monerS,  for 
moneri,  for  momris,  you  are  advised.     See  34. 

2.  E  is  also  a  favorite  vowel  for  t, 

1)  Before  z  or  two  or  more  consonants,  especially  in  final  syllables ; 
judex  for  judix,  judge  ;  miles  for  milets  for  militSj  soldier. 

»  In  the  subsequent  pages  the  pupil  will  be  expected  to  accent  words  in  pronun- 
ciation according  to  these  rules.  The  quantity  of  the  penult  in  words  of  more  than 
two  syllables  will  therefore  be  marked  (unless  determined  by  21  and  22),  to  enable  him 
to  ascertain  the  place  of  the  accent. 

*  Penult,  the  last  syllable  but  one ;  antepenult,  the  last  but  two. 


EUPHONIC   LAWS.  9 

2)  In  accented  syllables  before  a,  e,  o,  or  u :  ea  for  m,  this ;  n  for  ii, 
these ;  eo  for  to,  I  go ;  eunt  for  m«<,  they  go. 

29.  Vowels  are  sometimes  shortened,  regularly  so  in  final 
syllables  before  m  and  t;  erdm  for  erdm,  I  was;  er^i  for  erdt^  he 
was. 

30.  Vowels  are  often  weakened,  i.  e.,  changed  to  weaker 
vowels,  In  consequence  of  the  lengthening  of  the  word  by  inflec- 
tion, composition,  etc. 

The  order  of  the  vowels  from  the  strongest  to  the  weakest  is 

as  follows : 

a,        o,        u,        e,        i: 

conficio  for  confacio,  I  accomplish ;  servus  for  servos^  slave ;  fruc- 

tibus  iov  fructubiis^  with  fruits;  carminh  for  carmenis,  of  song.    - 

1.  Diphthongs  are  also  sometimes  weakened ; 

ae  (for  at)  to  I  or  e :  incidtt  for  incaedit,  he  cuts  into. 

oe  (for  oi)  to  u  or  I :  punlr^  for  poenire,  to  punish. 

au  to  u  or  6 :  excludo  for  cxclaudo^  to  shut  out 

31.  Vowels  are  often  dropped  in  the  middle  or  at  the  end  of 
words,  sometimes  even  at  the  beginning:  tempulum^  templum^ 
temple ;  pdterzs,  patris,  of  a  father ;  dnimdle,  dnlmal,  an  animal ; 
esum^  sum^  I  am. 

32.  Two  successive  vowels  are  sometimes  contracted 

I.  Into  a  DiPHTHOXG :  mensd-\  mensae,  tables. 

II.  More  frequently  into  a  long  vowel.  In  this  case  the 
second  vowel  generally  disappears.  Thus  e  and  i  often  disappear 
after  a,  e,  and  o;  dmdverdt,  ama-e-rat,  dmdrdt^  he  had  loved; 
dmdvisse,  ama-isse,  dmdsse,  to  have  loved.    But 

1.  The  first  vowel  disappears  in  the  following  endings : 

1)  In  a-is,  in  Declension  I. :  mensa-is,  mensis,  with  tables. 

2)  In  0-is,  and  o-i,  in  Declension  II. :  servo-is,  servls,  for  slaves, 
servo-i,  servl,  slaves.  But  in  the  Dative  Singular,  o-i  becomes  5  j  servo-i, 
servo,  for  the  slave. 

3)  In  a-o  in  Conjugation  I. :  Umd-o,  &mo,  I  love. 

2.  A-i  becomes  e  in  the  Subjunctive  of  Conjugation  I. :  &ma-l8,  HmSSy 
you  may  love. 

3.  O-X  becomes  &  in  neuters  of  Declension  II.:  temploS,  templS^ 
temples. 

II.  Changes  in  Consonants. 

33.  S  uniting  with  a  preceding  <j  or  ^  forms  x :  dux  for  duet, 
leader ;  rex  for  regs,  king. 


10  ETYMOLOGY. 

34.  S  final  is  often  dropped :  monere  for  moneri  for  monerh^ 
you  are  advised.     See  28,  1. 

35.  S  standing  between  two  vowels  is  generally  changed  to 
r:  flores  toruloses,  flowers. 

36.  D  and  t  are  generally  dropped  before  s :  Idph  for  lapids^ 
stone ;  aetds  for  aetata^  age ;  miles  for  miletSj  milits,  soldier. 


PART  SECOND. 
ETTMOLOGT. 

37.  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  inflection, 
and  derivation  of  words. 

38.  The  Parts  of  Speech  are — Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pro- 
nouns^ Verbs,  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and 
Interjections. 


CHAPTER    I. 

NOUNS. 

39.  A  Noun  or  Substantive  is  a  name,  as  of  a  person, 
place,  or  thing :  Gictro,  Cicero  ;  Pdmd>,  Rome ;  d6miis, 
house. 

1.  A  Proper  Noun  is  a  proper  name,  as  of  a  person  or  place :  Cicero  ; 
Roma. 

2.  A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  common  to  all  the  members  of  a  class 
of  objects :  wr,  a  man ;  ^g-wws,  horse.     Common  nouns  include 

1)  Collective  Nouns — designating  a  collection  of  objects:  populus, 
people;  exercitus,  army. 

2)  Abstract  Nouns — designating  properties  or  qualities :  wiWiw,  virtue ; 
justiiid,  justice. 

3)  Material  Nouns — designating  materials  as  such:  aurum,  gold; 
lignum,  wood ;  dqiui,  water. 

40.  Nouns  have  Gender,  Number,  Person,  and  Case. 


GENDER.  11 

I.   Gender. 

41.  There  are  three  genders* — Masculme,  Feminine^ 
and  Neuter. 

1.  In  some  nouns,  gender  is  determined  by  signification;  in  others,  by 
endings. 

42.  General  Rules  for  Gender. 
I.  Masculines. 

1.  Names  of  Males  :   Cicero;  vlr,  man  ;  rex,  king. 

2.  Names  of  Rivers,  Winds,  and  Months:  HJieniXs, 
Rhine  ;  NotiXs,  south  wind  ;  MartiH^,  March. 

n.  Feminines. 

1.  Names  of  Females:  mtUier,  woman  ;  leaend,  lioness. 

2.  Names  of  Countries,  Towns,  Islands,  and  Trees: 
AegyptUs,  Egypt ;  Romd,  Rome  ;  Delos,  Delos  ;  piriis, 
pear-tree. 

III.  Neuters. 

1.  Indeclinable  Nouns  :  fas,  right ;  nihil,  nothing. 

2.  Words  and  Clauses  used  as  i7ideclinable  nouns:  tristS 
vdle,  a  sad  farewell. 

43.  Remarks  on  Gender. 

1.  Exceptions. — The  endings'  of  nouns  sometimes  ^ve  them  a  gen- 
der at  variance  with  these  rules.     Thus 

1)  The  names  of  rivers — Albula,  AIM,  Lethd^  Styx^  and  sometimes 
others,  are  feminine  by  ending. 

2)  Some  names  of  countries,  towns,  islands,  trees,  and  animals,  take 
the  gender  of  their  endings.     See  53,  1. 

2.  Masculine  or  Feminine. — A  few  personal  appellatives  applicable  to 
both  sexes  and  a  few  names  of  animals  are  sometimes  masculine  and  some- 
times feminine,  but  when  used  without  distinct  reference  to  sex  they  are 
generally  masculine :  clvts,  citizen  (man  or  woman) ;  bds,  ox,  cow. 

3.  Epicene  Nouns  have  but  one  gender,  but  are  used  for  both  sexes. 
They  apply  only  to  the  inferior  animals,  and  usually  take  the  gender  of 
their  endings :  ans^r,  goose,  masculine ;  S,qmM,  eagle,  feminine. 

*  In  English,  Gender  denotes  sex.  Accordingly,  masculine  nouns  denote  males  ; 
feminine  nomx^,  females ;  and  neuternouns,  objects  which  are  neitlier  male  iior  fe- 
male. In  Latin,  however,  this  natural  distinction  of  gender  is  applied  only  to  the 
names  of  m^les  and  females ;  while,  in  all  other  nouns,  gender  depends  upon  an 
•rtlficlal  distinction  according  to  grammatical  rules. 

'  Gender  as  determined  by  the  endings  of  nouns  will  be  noticed  in  connecti<»i 
with  the  several  derlensions. 

2 


12  PERSON   AND   NUMBER.       CASES.       DECLENSION. 

II.    Person   and   Number. 

44.  The  Latin,  like  the  English,  has  three  persons  and 
two  numbers.  The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker  ;  the 
second,  the  person  spoken  to  ;  the  third,  the  person  spoken 
of.  The  singular  number  denotes  one,  the  plural  more 
than  one. 

III.    Cases.^ 

45.  The  Latin  has  six  cases  : 

Names.  English  Equivalents. 

Nominative,  Nominative. 

Genitive,  Possessive,  or  Objective  with  of. 

Dative,  Objective  with  to  ov  for. 

Accusative,  Objective. 

Vocative,  Nominative  Independent, 

Ablative,  Objective  with/rom,  &y,  ^?^,  with. 

1.  Oblique  Cases. — The  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and  Ablative, 
are  called  the  Oblique  Cases. 

2,  Locative. — ^The  Latin  has  also  a  few  remnants  of  another  ease, 
called  the  Locative,  denoting  the  place  in  which. 

DECLENSION. 

46.  Stem  and  Endings. — ^The  process  by  which  the 
several  cases  of  a  word  are  formed  is  called  Declension. 
It  consists  in  the  addition  of  certain  endings  to  one  com- 
mon base  called  the  stem. 

1.  Meaning. — Accordingly,  each  case-form  contains  two  distinct  ele- 
ments— the  stem,  which  gives  the  general  meaning  of  the  word,  and  the  case- 
ending,  which  shows  the  relation  of  that  meaning  to  some  other  word. 
Thus  in  reg-zs,  of  a  king,  the  general  idea,  king,  is  denoted  by  the  stem 
reg,  the  relation  of,  by  the  ending  is. 

2.  Cases  alike. — But  certain  cases  are  not  distinguished  in  form. 

1)  The  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative  in  neuters  are  alike,  and 
in  the  plural  end  in  a. 

*  The  case  of  a  noun  shows  the  relation  which  that  noun  sustains  to  other  words ; 
as,  John^s  hook.  Here  the  possessive  case  (John's)  shows  that  John  sustains  to  the 
book  the  relation  o{ possessor. 


FIRST   DECLEXSIOX.  13 

2)  The  Nominative  and  Vocative  are  alike,  except  in  tlie  singular  of 
nouns  in  tis  of  the  second  declension  (51).* 

3)  The  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  are  alike. 

47.  Five  Declensions. — In  Latin  there  are  five  declen- 
sions, distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  endings  of  the 
Stem,  or  of  the  Genitive  Singular,  as  follows: 

Dec.    I. 

II. 
III. 
IV. 

V. 

'  1.  The  five  declensions  are  only  five  varieties  of  one  general  system 
of  inflection,  as  the  case-endings  are  nearly  identical  in  all  nouns. 

2.  But  these  case-endings  appear  distinct  and  unchanged  only  in  nouns 
of  t'le  Third  Declension,  while  in  all  others  they  are  seen  only  in  combi- 
nation with  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem. 

FIRST    DECLENSION:    A    NOUNS. 

48.  Nouns  of  the  first  declension  end  in 

S  and  G^— feminine  ;  Ss  and  es, — masculine^ 
Nouns  in  a  are  declined  as  follows: 

SINGULAR. 


STEM-EXDINGS.                          GENITIVE  ENDINGS. 

a 

ae 

o 

i 

i  or 

consonant. 

Is 

u 

as 

e 

31 

Nom. 

Example, 
mensft. 

Meaning. 
a  tablcy 

Case-Endinga. 

Gen. 

mcnsae. 

of  a  table, 

ae 

Bat. 

mensae. 

to,  for  a  table, 

ae 

Ace. 

mensem. 

a  table, 

am 

Voc. 

mcnsa. 

0  table. 

a 

Abl 

mensa. 

with,  from,  by  a  table. 

a 

Nom. 

mensae. 

PLURAL. 

tables. 

ae 

Gen. 

mcnsarttni. 

of  tables. 

firum 

Dat. 

mcnsis. 

to,  for  tables, 

Is 

Ace. 

mensas. 

tables. 

as 

Voc. 

mensae. 

0  tables, 

ae 

Abl. 

mensis. 

with,  from,  by  tables. 

Is. 

1  And  in  some  nouns  of  Greek  oridn. 

3  That  \»,  noung  of  this  declension  in  a  and  e  are  feminine,  and  those  in  as  and 

are  masculine. 


14  FIRST   DECLEXSIOX. 

1.  Stem. — In  nouns  of  the  First  Declension,  the  stem  ends  in  a. 

2.  In  the  Paradigm,  observe 

1)  That  the  stem  is  mensa,  and  that  the  Nominative  Singular  is  the 
same. 

2)  That  the  several  cases  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their 
case-endings. 

3)  That  these  case-endings  contain  the  stem-ending  a  (47,  2),  which 
disappears  in  the  ending  Is,  contracted  from  a-is,  in  the  Dative  and  Abla- 
tive Plural.     See  32,1,1). 

3.  Examples  for  Practice. — Like  mensa  decline : 

Ala,  wing ;  aqua,  water ;  causa,  cause  ;  fortuna,  fortune. 

4.  Locative, — Names  of  towns  and  a  very  few  other  words  have  a 
Locative  Singular  in  ae :  Romae,  at  Rome ;  mlUtiae,  in  war, 

5.  Exceptions  in  Gender. — Hadria,  Adriatic  Sea,  is  masculine ;  some- 
times also  ddma,  deer,  and  talpa,  mole.     See  also  43,  1. 

6.  Article. — The  Latin  has  no  article.  A  noun  may  therefore,  ac- 
cording to  the  connection  in  which  it  is  used,  be  translated  either  with- 
out any  article,  with  a  or  an,  or  with  the :  cdrona,  crown,  a  crown,  the 
crown. 

49.  Irregular  Case-Endings. — ^The  following  occur : 

1.  As,  an  old  form  for  ae,  in  the  Genitive  of  f&milia,  in  composition 
with  pHtSr,  mcUSr,  /Uius,  and  fllia :  paterfamilias,  father  of  a  family. 

2.  Al  for  the  genitive  ending  ae,  in  the  poets :  auldi  for  aulae,  of  a 
hall. 

3.  Um  for  drum  in  the  Gen.  Plur. :  Darddntdum  for  Dardaniddrum, 
of  the  descendants  of  Dardanus. 

4.  Abus,  the  original  form  for  Is,  in  the  Dat.  and  Abl.  Plur.,  espe- 
cially in  dea,  goddess,  and  ftlia,  daughter,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
same  cases  of  deics,  god,  and  filius,  son :  dedhus  for  dcis,  to  goddesses. 

50.  Greek  Nouns. — Nouns  of  this  declension  in  e,  as, 
and  es  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  declined  as  follows  : 

Epit5me,  epitome.     Aeneas,  Aeneas.     Pyrites,  pyrites. 


singular. 

K.  epitom© 

Aeneas 

pyrites 

O.  epitomes 

Aeneae 

pyrltae 

D.  epitomae 

Aeneae 

pyritae 

A.  epitomen 

pyrltCii 

F.  epitom* 

Aeneft 

pyrite,  \ 

A.  epitome 

AcnSft. 

pyrlte,  i 

SECOND   DECLENSION. 


15 


pyrltae 

pyritariknt 

pyrltls 

pyi-Itas 

pyritae 

pyrltls. 


iV^.  ?pitomae 
O.  epitomftrjini 
D.  epitomis 
A.  epitomfts 
V.  epitomae 
A.  epitomis. 

1.  Paradigms. — Observe 

1)  That  in  the  Plural  and  in  the  Dative  Singular,  Greek  nouns  ar« 
declined  like  mensa. 

2)  That  the  stem-ending  a  is  changed  into  e  in  certain  cases  of  nouna 
in  e  and  es. 

2.  Many  Greek  nouns  assume  the  Latin  ending  a,  and  are  declined 
like  mensa.     Many  in  e  have  also  a  form  in  a  ;  epitdme,  epitdma,  epitome. 


SECOND    DECLENSIOISr:    O    NOUNS. 

51.  Nouns  of  the  second  declension  end  in 

Sr,  ir,  us,  and  os — masculine;  iim,  and  on — neuter. 

Nouns  in  er,  ir,  us,  and  um,  are  declined  as  follows  : 

Servus,  slave.     Puer,  hoy.    Ager^Jield.    Templum,  temple, 

SINGULAR, 


JV.  servtts 

puer 

Sger 

templ&itt 

G.  servl 

puerl 

agrl 

templl 

D.  servo 

puerO 

agrO 

templo 

A.  serviini 

pueriim 

agriim 

templftm 

V.  serv« 

puer 

ager 

templttm 

A.  8erv5 

puero 

agrO 

templo 

PLURAL. 

N.  servl 

puerl 

agrl 

tempia 

G.  servOriim 

puer5rtlra 

agrOr&m 

templortkiu 

D.  servis 

puerls 

agrls 

templls 

A.  servCs 

puerOs 

agrOs 

templA 

V.  servl 

puSrl 

agrl 

tempia, 

A.  servis. 

puerls. 

agrls. 

templls. 

1.  Stem. — In  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension, 

the  stem  ends  in  o. 

2.  In  the  Paradigms,  observe 

1)  That  the  stems  are  servo,  pu^ro,  agro,  and  templo. 

2)  That  the  stem-ending  o  becomes  u  in  the  endings  its  and  um, 
and  e  in  serve,^  that  it  disappears  by  contraction  in  the  endings  a,  t,  and 
is  (for  o-a,  o-i  and  o-w),*  and  is  dropped  in  the  forms  ptcer  and  Sffcr. 


1  See  80,  and  28, 1. 


a  See  82,  II.  1  and  3. 


16 


SECOND   DECLENSION. 


3)  That  the  case-endings,  including  the  stem-endmg  O  (47,  2),  are  as 

follows : 

SINGULAR. 


Masc. 

Neut. 

Norn,  us,  — » 

iim 

Gen.    i 

i 

Dat.    o 

0 

Ace.    um 

iim 

Voc.    e,  — 1 

ftm 

Ahl    0 

PLURAL. 

0 

Nom.  I 

S 

Gen.    Orum 

oriim 

Dat.   Is 

is 

Ace.    OS 

S 

Voc.    T 

& 

^6^.    Is. 

Is. 

4)  That  puer  and  ti^'er  differ  in  declension  from  servus  in  dropping  the 
endings  us  and  e  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc. ;  Nom.  puer  for  puerus,  Voc.  puer 
for  puere. 

5)  That  a^er  inserts  e  before  r  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing.^ 

6)  That  templum^  as  a  neuter  noun,  has  the  Nom.,  Accus.,  ar.J  Voc. 
alike,  ending  in  the  plural  in  a.     See  46,  2,  1). 

3.  Examples  for  Practice. — Like  servus:  doniinus,  master, — Like 
PUER ;  g^ner,  son-in-law. — Like  ager  :  magister,  master. — Like  templum  : 
bellum,  war. 

4.  Nouns  in  er  and  ir. — Most  nouns  in  er  are  declined  like  ager^  but 
the  following  in  er  and  ir  are  declined  like  puer. 

1)  Nouns  in  ir :  vir,  viri,  man, 

2)  Compounds  in  fer  and  ger :  armiger,  armigeri,  armor-bearer ;  sig- 
ni/er^  signiferi.,  standard-bearer. 

3)  Adultery  adulterer;  Celtibery  Celtiberian ; ^  gener^  son-in-law;  Iber^ 
Spaniard ;  ^  Llher^  Bacchus ;  llheri,  children  ;  Mulciber,  Vulcan ;  ^  pres- 
byter, elder ;  socer,  father-in-law  ;  vesper,  evening. 

5.  Deus. — Declined  thus :  Sing,  deus,  del,  deo,  dcum,  deus,  deo :  Plur. 
N.  and  V.  del,  dil,  dl ;  G.  deorum,  deum ;  D.  and  A.  dels,  dils,  dls,  Ace. 
deos. 


1  The  endings  of  the  Nora,  and  Yoc.  Sing,  are  wanting  in  nouns  in  er. 

2  In  puer,  e  belongs  to  tlie  stem,  and  is  accordingly  retained  in  all  the  cases ;  but 
in  d(/er  it  is  inserted  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing.,  as  agr  would  be  difficult  to  pro- 
nounce. 

3  Celtiber  and  Iber  have  e  long  in  the  Gen.,  and  Mulciber  sometimes  drops  e. 


SECOND    DECLENSIOX.  17 

6.  Locative. — Names  of  Towns  and  a  few  other  words  have  a  Loca- 
tive Singular  in  I :  CSrinlhi,  at  Corinth ;  Eph&i,  at  Ephesus ;  humiy  on  the 

ground. 

52.  Iruegclar  Cvse-Endings. — The  following  occur : 

1.  I  for  ii  by  contraction  in  the  Gen.  Sing.,  without  change  of  accent; 
ingS'nl  for  inge'nii,  of  talent. 

2.  I  for  ie^  common  in  proper  names  in  iiis^  without  change  of  accent: 
Mcrcan  for  Mercuric^  Mercury.  Also  in  fill  iorfilie^  son ;  gSnl  for  gSnic, 
guardian  spirit. 

3.  Us  for  e  in  the  Voc.  of  dtxis^  god,  rare  in  other  words. 

4.  Um  for  orurn^  common  in  a  few  words  denoting  money,  weight,  and 
measure:  t&lentum  for  talentoinim,  of  talents;  also  in  a  few  other  words: 
ileum  for  deOrum  ;  llMrum  for  liberorum  ;  Arglvum  for  Argivorunu 

53.  Exceptions  in  Gender. 

1.  Feminine: — (1)  See  42,  IL,  but  observe  that  many  names  of  coun- 
tries^ toiJBnSy  islasids,  and  trccs^  follow  the  gender  of  their  endings.  (2)  Most 
names  of  gems  and  ships  are  feminine :  also  alvm^  belly ;  cai'b&sus,  sail ; 
coins,  distaff;  humm^  ground;  vannus,  sieve.     (3)  A  few  Greek  feminines. 

2.  Neuter: — pSlagus^  sea;  v'lrus^  poison;  ctdgiu  {Taioly  masc),  com- 
mon people. 

54,  Greek  Nouns. — Nouns  of  this  declension  in  os 
and  on  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  declined  in  the  singu- 
lar as  follows  : 


Delos,  F.,*  Delos. 

Androgeos,  Androgeos. 

SINGULAR. 

Bion,  Ilium, 

K  Delds 

Androgeos 

Ilidn 

G.  Dell 

Androgeo,  1 

Ilil 

B.  Delo 

Androged 

Hi© 

A.  Deldn 

Androgcon,  O 

Ilion 

V.  Del« 

AndrogcOs 

Ilidn 

A.  Delo. 

Androgeo. 

nio. 

1.  The  Plural  of 

nouns  in  os  and  on  is  generally  regular,  but  certain 

Greek  endings  occur,  as  oe  in  the  Nom.  Plur.,  and  5n  in  the  Gen. 

2.  Most  Greek  nouns  generally  assume  the  Latin  forms  in  us  and  wm, 
and  are  declined  like  servus  and  regnum.  Many  in  os  or  on  have  also  a 
form  in  us  or  um. 

3.  Greek  nouns  in  eus.     See  68  and  68,  1. 

4.  Panthus  has  Voc.  PanthU  ;  pSl&gus^  Ace.  Plur,,  p^l&gl. 

*  M  stand*  for  masculins,  F  for  feminine,  and  N  for  neuter. 


18  THIRD   DECLENSION. 

THIRD    DECLENSION:    CONSONANT    AND    I    NOUNS. 

55.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  end  in 

a,  e,  i,  o,  y,  c,  1,  n,  r,  s,  t,  and  x. 

56,  Nouns  of  this  declension  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes  : 

I.  Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  a  Consonant. 

II.  Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  I.^ 

CLASS   I.— CONSONANT  STEMS. 
67.  Stems  ending  in  a  Labial  :  b  or  p. 

Princeps,  M.,'  a  leader,  chief.         Case-Endings. 

SINGULAR. 

N.  princeps,  a  leader,  s 

G.  principis,  of  a  leader,  !s 

B.  principl,  to,  for  a  leader,  I 

A.  princip^iii,  a  leader,  gm 

V.  princeps,  0  leader,  s 

A.  principl,  with,  from,  hy  a  leader,  e 

PLURAL. 

K.  principis,  leaders,  es 

G.  principiiiii,  of  leaders,  iim 

D.  principibiis,  to,  for  leaders,  ibiis 

A.  principCs,  leaders,  es 

V.  principes,  0  leaders,  6s 

A.  principil>iis^  with,  from,  hy  leaders.  ibiis. 

1.  Stem  and  Case-Endings. — In  this  Paradigm  observe 

1)  That  the  stem  is  princSp,  modified  before  an  additional  syllable  to 
prinnp.     See  30  and  57,  2. 

2)  That  the  case-endings  are  appended  to  the  stem  without  change. 
See  47,  2. 

2.  Variable  Radical  Vowel. — In  the  final  syllable  of  dissyllabic  con- 
sonant stems,  short  e  or  i  generally  takes  the  form  of  ^  in  the  Nom.  and 
Voc.  Sing,  and  that  of  i  in  all  the  other  cases.  Thus  princeps,  pi'inctpis, 
and  judex,  judicis  (59),  both  alike  have  e  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  and 
i  in  all  the  other  cases,  though  in  princeps,  the  original  form  of  the  radi- 
cal vowel  is  e  and  in  judex,  i.  For  a  similar  change  in  the  radical  vowel, 
see  miles,  mlUtis  (58)  and  carmen,  carmmis  (60).     See  also  dpus,  Speris  (61). 

1  For  Gender  Bce  99-115.  2  gee  foot-note  p.  17. 


THIRD    DECLENSION. 


1» 


3.  In  monosyllables  in  bs  tlie  stem  ends  in  i.     See  urbs^  64. 

4.  Synopsis  of  Declension-.     See  86,  88. 

68.  Stems  ending  in  a  Dental  :  D  or  T. 
Lapis,  sr.,  stone.     Aetas,  f.,  age.     Miles,  m.,  soldier. 


K  ISpTs 
G.  lapidXs 
2).  lapidl 
A.  lapid^ii 
V.  lapis 
A.  lapW* 


N.  lapides 

G.  lapidtkiii 

J),  lapidlbiis 

A.  lapIdCs 

V.  lapid€s 

A.  lapidibils 


SINGULAR. 

aetas 

aetatXs 

aetati 

aetilt^m 

aetas 

aetata 

PLURAL. 

aetatCs 

aetatikm 

aetatXbiis 

aetatCs 

aetat^s 

aetatibiis. 


rallgs 

militXs 

miini 

milit^n 

milSs 

mim« 


milltCs 

milTtttm 

militibtks 

militCs 

millt€s 

militibjis. 


Nepos,  M.,  grandson.     Virtus,  f.,  virtue.     Caput,  n.,  head. 


JV;  nep6s 
G.  nepotXs 
D.  nepoti 
A.  nepSt^m 

F.  nepos 
A.  nepOt^ 

iV.  nepotCs 

G.  nepOtiim 
D.  nepotibils 
A.  nepotCs 

V.  nepot€s 
A.  nepotlbils. 


SINGULAR. 

virtus 

virtutXs    ' 

virtutl 

virtut^m 

virtus 

virtutl 

PLURAL. 

virtutCs 

virtutitm 

virtutXbtt.s 

virtut€s 

virtut€s 

virtutlbiis* 


cSpiit 

capitis 

capKtl 

caput 

caput 

capJt^ 

capttft 

capUikm 

capitibfts 

capit& 

capit& 

capitibiis. 


1.  Stems  and  Case-Endings. — ^In  these  Paradigms  observe 

1)  That  the  stems  are  lUpid,  aetata  rriilit,  n^pot,  virtut  and  diput. 

2)  That  mlUs  has  the  variable  vowel,  S,  X,  and  cUput,  tl,  L     See  57,  2. 

3)  That  the  dental  d  or  t  is  dropped  before  s :  l&pis  for  lapidsy  aetOg 
for  aetats,  milSs  for  mileUi,  virtus  for  virtuts.     See  36. 


20 


TIIIKD   DECLENSION. 


4)  That  the  case-endings,  except  in  the  neuter  cilput  (46,  2),  are  the 
same  as  those  given  above.     See  5Y. 

5)  That  the  neuter,  caput,  has  no  case-ending  in  the  Nom.,  Ace,  and 
Voc,  Sing.,  S  in  the  Nom.,  Ace,  and  Voc.  Plur.,  and  the  case-endings  of 
masculine  and  feminine  nouns  in  the  other  cases. 

2.  Neuter  stems  in  at  drop  t  in  the  Nom.  Sing,  and  end  in  a :  Nom., 
poetna,  Gen.,  poemaiis  ;  Stem,  poemdt.  These  nouns  sometimes  have  is  for 
thus  in  the  Dat.  and  Abl.  Plur. :  poemafls  for  poematibus. 

3.  Synopsis  op  Declension.     See  69,  78-84. 

59.  Stems  ending  in  a  Guttural 


Rex,  M., 
Tiing. 

N.  rex 

Q.  regis 

J),  regl 

A.  reg^m 

V.  rex 

A.  reg^ 


Judex,  M.  &  F., 
judge. 


Radix, 
root. 


F., 


judex 

judicis 

judici 

judic^ii 

judex 

judici 


singular. 
radix 
radicXs 
radicl 
radlci^n 
radix 
radicl 


O  OR  G. 

Dux,  M.  &  F., 

leader. 

dux 

duels 

duel 

duc^m 

dux 

ducS 


PLURAL. 

N.  regCs  judices  radices  duces 

G.  rcgiim  judiciiiii  radiciim  ducikm 

D.  regXl>iis  judicifeils  radicXljiks  ducitotts 

A.  reges  judices        ^  radices  duc€s 

V.  reges  judicCs  radices  duces 

A.  regibiis.  judicibiks.  radicibiis.  duclbtis. 

1.  Stems  and  Case-Endings. — In  the  Paradigms  observe 

1)  That  the  stems  are  reg,  jitdtc,  rddlc  and  due — -judtc  with  the  varia- 
ble vowel — i,  ^.     See  57,  2. 

2)  That  the  case-endings  are  those  given  in  57. 

3)  That  s  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  unites  with  c  or  ^  of  the  stem 
and  forms  x.     See  33. 

2.  Synopsis  of  Declension. — See  Nouns  in  x:  92-98. 

60.  Stems  ending  in  a  Liquid  :  l,  M,  N,  or  r. 


Sol,  M., 

Consul,  M., 

Passer,  m.. 

Pater,  m. 

sun. 

consul. 

sparrow. 
singular. 

father. 

K  sol 

consul 

passer 

pater 

G.  solXs 

consiilis 

passerXs 

patrXs 

D.  soli 

consiill 

passerl 

patrl 

THIRD   DECLENSION. 


21 


A.  sol^m 

consuiem 

passerem 

patrem 

V.  sol 

consul 

passgr 

pater 

A.  sol6 

consiiie 

passSre 

PLURAL. 

patre 

iV.  soles 

consulCs 

passeres 

patres 

G. 

consulttm 

passeriiiu 

patriim 

D.  solib&s 

consulibiis 

passerXbits 

patrXbiis 

A.  soles 

cousules 

passeres 

patres 

r.  soles 

consulCs 

passeres 

patres 

A.  solXbtts. 

consulibils. 

passeribiis. 

patrXbtks. 

Pastor,  M., 

Leo,  M., 

Virgo,  F., 

Carmen,  n., 

shepherd. 

lion. 

maiden. 

SINGULAR. 

song. 

N.  pastor 

leo 

virgo 

carmen 

G.  pastOris 

leGuXs 

virgtnSs 

carminXs 

D,  pastorl 

leonl 

virginl 

carmml 

A.  pastorem 

leonem 

virgineiu 

carmen 

V.  pastor 

leo 

virgo 

carmen 

A.  pastore 

leone 

virgine 

PLURAL. 

carmine 

N.  pastorCs 

leones 

virgines 

carminfi, 

G.  pastoriim 

Iconikm 

virginikm 

carminitm 

D.  pastorXbtts 

leonibfts 

virginXbiks 

carminXbiks 

A.  pastorCs 

leones 

virgines 

carminft 

V.  pastorCs 

leones 

virgines 

carmina 

A.  pastorib&s. 

,  IconXbiks. 

virginXbiis. 

carminXbits. 

1.  Stems  and  Case-Endings. — In  the  Paradigms  observe 

1)  That  the  stems  are  so/,  consul^  passlfr,  p&t^r,  pastoi',  Icon,  virgHn, 
and  carman. 

2)  That  virgo  (virgon)  has  the  variable  vowel,  5,  X,  and  carman,  S,  L 

3)  That  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  s,  the  usual  case-ending  for  masc. 
and  fem.  nouns,  is  omitted,  and  that  in  those  cases  the  stem  J9a«^5r  shortens 
o,  while  leon  and  virgin  drop  n. 

2.  HiEMS,  the  only  stem  in  m,  takes  s  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing. 
Also  sanguis  (for  sanguins\  blood,  and  Salamls  (for  Sal&mins),  Sakmis, 
which  drop  n  before  ». 

3.  Passer,  Pater. — Most  nouns  in  er  are  declined  like  passer,  but 
those  in  ter,  and  a  few  others,  are  declined  like  pHt^r.     See  77,  II. 

4.  Leo  and  Virgo. — Most  nouns  in  o  are  declined  like  leo,  but  those  in 
do  and  go,  with  a  few  others,  are  declined  like  virgo.  See  72  with 
exceptions. 


22 


THIRD   DECLENSION. 


5.  Four  stems  in  br  change  o  to  u.     See  11,  IV. 

6.  Synopsis  op  Declension.     See  12,  16-11. 

61.  Stems  ending  in  s. 

Flos,  M.,  Jus,  N.,  Opus,  N., 

flower.  right.  xoorh. 


Corpus,  N., 
body. 


N.  flos 

G.  floris 

D.  florl 

A.  flor^m 

V.  flos 

.4.  flor« 


JUS 

juris 

jurl 

jus 

jus 

jur« 

jura 
juriim 
jurXb&s 
jura 
jura 
A.  flori1>iis.        jurl1>iis. 


N.  flores 

(r.  floriliii 

i).  florIl>it« 

A.  flor€s 

V.  floras 


opus 

operis 

operl 

op  us 

opus 

oper^ 

PLURAL. 

opera 

operiim 

operXbtts 

opera 

opera 

operXbtis. 


corpus 

corporis 

corporl 

corpus 

corpus 

corpora 

corpora 

corporiini 

corporil>&» 

corpora 

corpora 

corporibils. 


1.  Stems  and  Case-Endings. — In  the  Paradigms  observe 

1)  That  the  stems  axe  Jlos,  jus,  6pSs,  and  corpos. 

2)  That  opus  has  the  variable  vowel,  e,  u,  and  corpus,  (5,  u. 

3)  That  3  of  the  stem  becomes  r  between  two  vowels :  flos,  floris  {iov 
flosis).     See  35. 

4)  That  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  omit  the  case-ending.     See  60,  1,  3). 

2.  Synopsis  of  Declension.     See  79,  80,  82-84. 


CLASS   II.— I  STEMS. 


62.  Stems   ending  in  i. 
'n  i,  or  hi  i  or  S. 
Tussis,  F.,     Turris,  f., 


■JVouns  in  is, — Abl.  Sing. 


cough. 

N.  tussis 

G.  tussXs 

D.  tussi 

A.  tussim 


tower. 

turris 
turris 
turri 
turrim,  ^m 


Ignis,  M., 
fire. 

SINGULAR. 

ignis 
ignis 
ignl 
ipni^m 


Case-Endings. 


is 
is 
I 
im,  em 


THIRD   DECLENSION. 


V. 

tussXs 

turri» 

igni* 

I3 

A. 

tussi 

turrl,  6 

ignl,  « 

PLURAL. 

1,6 

N. 

tussCs 

turrCs 

ignCs 

es 

G. 

tussi&m 

turriikm 

ignittm 

ium 

D. 

tussXbtts 

turribits 

ignXbils 

ibus 

A. 

tuss©s.  Is 

turrCs,  Is 

ign©8.  Is 

6s,  Is 

V. 

tuss^s 

turr6s 

ignCs 

es 

A. 

tusslbiks. 

turrlbiks. 

igiiibiks. 

ibiis. 

I.  Paradigms. — Observe 

1.  That  the  stems  are  tussi,  tiwri,  and  Igni. 

2.  That  the  case-endings  here  given  include  the  stem-ending  i,  which 
disappears  in  certain  cases. 

3.  That  these  Paradigms  differ  in  declension  only  in  the  Ace.  and 
Abl.  Sing. 

II.  Like  Tcssis — Ace.  im,  Abl.  i — are  declined 

1.  Baris,  plough-tail ;  rdvls,  hoarseness ;  sniis,  thirst. 

2.  In  the  Sing.  (1)  Names  of  rivers  and  places  in  is  not  increasing  in 
the  Gen. :  Ttb^ris,  Hispalis.  See  629.  (2)  Greek  nouns  in  is,  G.  w, 
and  some  others. 

III.  Like  TURRis — Ace.  Xm,  Sm ;  Abl.  I,  S — are  declined 

Clavis,  key ;  fSbris,  fever ;  messis,  harvest ;  ndvis,  ship ;  puppis,  stem ; 
Testis,  rope  ;  s^curis,  axe ;  sementis,  seed-time ;  stAgXlis,  strigil. 

1.  Pars,  part,  sometimes  has  partim  in  the  Ace. 

2.  Ar&ris  or  Arar,  the  Saone,  and  LigSr,  the  Loire,  have  Ace.  {m, 
«m,  Abl.  I,  S. 

IV.  Like  IGNIS — Ace.  em,  Abl.  I,  ^ — are  declined 

Amnis,  river ;  anguis,  serpent ;  iivis,  bird ;  hilis,  bile ;  civis,  citizen ; 
dassis,  fleet ;  coUis,  hill ;  finis,  end ;  orbis,  circle ;  postis,  post ;  unguis, 
nail,  and  a  few  others. 

1.  Adjectives  in  Sr  and  !Cs  used  substantively  have  the  Abl.  generally 
in  X :  September,  Septembri,  September ; '  fUmXlidris,  familidrl,  friend. 
But  adjectives  used  as  proper  names,  a.ndjuvenis,  youth,  have  S:  JavSnd- 
lis,  Juvcndle,  Juvenal. 

2.  ImbSr,  storm ;  rus,  country ;  sors,  lot ;  supeUez,  furniture ;  vespSr, 
evening,  and  a  few  others,  sometimes  have  the  Abl.  in  I. 

3.  Many  names  of  towns  have  a  Locative  in  I :  CarthOgini,  at  Car- 
thage; TlbiiH,  at  Tibur.     See  45,  2 ;  48,  4. 


1  Names  ot  months  are  adjectives  used  substantively,  with  mensis,  month,  under- 
stood. 


24 


THIRD    DECLEXSION. 


63.  Stems  ending  in  I. — Neuters  in  g,  al,  and  ar. 


Mare, 

Animal, 

Calcar, 

Case- 

sea. 

animal. 

spur. 

SINGULAR. 

N.  mar« 

animal 

calcar 

e— 2 

G.  maris 

animalis 

calcSris 

IS 

D.  mari 

animall 

calcarl 

I 

A.  mar^ 

animal 

calcar 

e— 2 

V.  mar^ 

animal 

calcar 

e      2 

A.  marl^ 

animall 

calcari 

PLURAL. 

1 

N.  maris, 

animalia 

calcaria 

ia 

G.  mariiiiii 

animaliiliu 

calcariuLm 

ium 

B.  maril>&s 

animalibiis 

calcaril>iis 

ibu3 

A.  maris 

animaliS 

calcari S 

ia 

V.  maris 

animaliS 

calcariS 

ia 

A.  maril>iis. 

animalil>«.s. 

calcaribiis. 

ibiis. 

1.  Paradigms. — Observe 

1)  That  the  stem-ending  i  is  changed  to  e  in  the  Nom.  Ace.  and  Voc. 
Sing,  of  wtare,  and  dropped  in  the  same  cases  of  ampml  (for  animdle)  and 
calcar  (for  calcdre).     See  28,  1  ;  31. 

2)  That  the  case-endings  include  the  stem-ending  i. 

2.  The  following  have  e  in  the  Abl.  Sing. : — (1)  Names  of  towns  in  S  j 
Praeneste. — (2)  Nouns  in  al  and  ar  with  a  short  in  Gen. :  sal,  sale,  salt ; 
nectar,  nectare,  nectar. — (3)  I^dr,  farre,  corn, — (4)  Generally  rete,  net,  and 
in  poetry  sometimes  mare. 

64.  Stems  ending  in  I. — Nouns  in  is,  es,  and  s  (x) 

preceded  hy  a  Consonant^ — Abl.  Sing,  in  S. 


Hostis,  M. 

&F. 

,  Nubes, 

F., 

Urbs, 

F., 

Arx,  F., 

enemy. 

cloud. 

city. 

SINGULAR. 

citadel. 

K  hostis 

nubes 

urbs 

arx^ 

G.  hostis 

nubis 

urbis 

arcis 

1  Sometimes  mare  in  poetry. 

2  The  dash  here  implies  that  the  case-ending  is  sometimes  wanting. 

3  X  in  arx=c3,—c  belonging  to  the  stem,  and  «  being  the  Nom.  ehding. 


THIRD   DECLEXSION. 


25 


D.  hosti 

nubl 

urbl 

arcl 

A.  host^aii 

nubbin 

urb^m 

arcfim 

V.  hostis 

nubes 

urbs 

arx 

A.  hostfi 

nub6 

urb^ 

PLURAL. 

arc* 

K  host«s 

nubes 

urb€» 

arcCs 

G.  hostiiim 

nubiiim 

urbiiiiii 

arciftm 

D.  hostibils 

nubXl>u.s 

urbibiks 

arcXbiis 

A.  hostCs,  Is 

nubCiS,  Is 

urbes.  Is 

arcCs,  Is 

V.  hostCs 

nubes 

urb€s 

arc€s 

^.  hostibiis. 

nubi1>iis. 

urbibiis. 

arcibiis. 

1.  Stems. — These  Paradigms  show  a  corabination  of  i-stems  and  con- 
sonant stems :  hosti,  host ;  urhl,  urh  ;  arci,  arc.  The  i-stem  appears  espe- 
cially in  the  endings  of  the  Gen.  and  Ace.  Plur.  ium,  es,  is.  The  stem 
of  nubes  seems  to  be  nubeSy  nubi,  nub. 

65.  Endixgs  ium,  is. — Like  the  preceding  Paradigms, 
the  following  classes  of  words  have  iHm,  in  the  Gen.  Plur., 
and  Is  with  ^5  in  the  Ace.  Plur. 

1.  Most  nouns  in  ns  and  rs:^  cliens,  clientiwn,  clientes,  is,  client;  ars, 
artium,  artes,  is,  art;  cohors,  cohoriium,  cohortes,  is,  cohort. 

2.  Monosyllables  in  s  and  x  preceded  by  a  consonant,'^  and  a  few  in  s 
and  X  preceded  by  a  vowel :  ^  urbs,  urbium,  urbcs,  is,  city ;  arx,  arcium^ 
arces,  is,  citadel ;  nox,  nodium,  nodes,  is,  night. 

3.  Many  nouns  not  increasing  in  the  genitive : 

1)  Most  nouns  in  es  and  is  not  increasing:*  nubes,  nubium,  nubes,  is, 
cloud;  &vis,  avium,  aves,  is,  bird. 

2)  Curo,  flesh ;  imb^r,  storm ;  linter,  boat ;  ut^r,  leathern  sack ;  venter, 
belly ;  and  generally  InsubSr,  Insubrian. 

4.  Many  nouns  in  as  and  is  (Plur.  cites  and  lies).     Thus 

1)  Names  of  nations :  Arpinas,  Arpinatium,  etc. ;  Samnis,  Sam- 
nitium,  etc. 

2)  Optxmates  and  Penates,  and  occasionally  other  nouns  in  as. 


*  Some  of  these  often  have  Hm  In  poetry  and  sometimes  even  in  prose,  as  pdrens, 
parent,  generally  has. 

a  Except  {ops)  dpis  and  the  Greek  noons,  gryps,  lynx,  ephynx. 

'  Namely,/(iMa:!,  glls.  Ha,  mds,  nix,  nox,  68  (ossis),  vis,  generally /raws  and  mils. 

*  But  canis,  jiivenis,  strues,  vates,  have  Urn;  apis,  mensis,  scdes,  volucris,  Hm  or 
iim;  compos,  «;?;«. 


26 


THIRD    DECLENSION. 


66,  Special  Paradigms. 

Sus,  M.  &  F.,  Bos,  M.  &  F.,  Nix,  F.,     Senex,  m.,  Vis,  f., 
swine.  ox,  cow.       snow.       old  man.    force. 


SINGULAR. 

N.     sus 

bos' 

nix 

senex 

vis 

G.     suXs 

bovis 

nivXs 

senis 

vls« 

D.    sul 

bovi 

nivl 

senl 

VI  2 

A.    su^m 

bov^m 

niv^ni 

sendm 

Vim 

F.     sus 

bos 

nix 

senex 

vis 

A.     su^ 

bov€ 

niv« 

PLURAL. 

sen^ 

vl 

jy.   su€s 

bov€s 

nives 

senCs 

vlr€s 

6^.     suiiiEt 

^  boviiiiii 
(  boiim 

niviiim 

seniim 

viriiim 

(  sul1>iis 

'  (  sul^iks 

\  bobiis  1 
"(  bubils  1 

nivllyfts 

gcnil>tiLS 

viril>iis 

A.     su€s 

boves 

nivCs 

scn€s 

vir6s 

r.     sues 

bov€s 

nives 

senCs 

vires 

^  j  sui1>iis 

"  ]  sul>iis 

j  boljiis 
1  bul>iis. 

nivXljiis. 

senitotts. 

viril»its. 

1.  Stems. — 

These  are  su  ; 

hov  ;  rag  (nix  =: 

nigs),  nw,  nivi 

;  s^nec^  sSn 

vis,  vi  (sing.),  vlri  (for  visi,  plur.).     See  35. 

2.  Sus,  and  grus  (crane),  the  only  u  stems  in  this  declension,  are 
declined  alike  except  in  the  Dat.  and  Abl.  PL,  where  grus  is  regular: 
grutbus. 

3.  Jupiter,  Jupiter. — Declined  thus:   Jupiter,   Jovis,   Jovl,  Jov^m, 
Jupiter,  Jove.     Stems  Jupiter  and  J6v. 

67.  Case-Endings  of  the  Third  Declension. 


SINGULAR. 

Consonant 

STEMS. 

I-STEMS. 

Masc.  &  Fern. 

Nmt 

Ma^c.  &  Fern. 

Nmt. 

N.    8— » 

_3 

is,  es,  8 

e— 3 

G.  is 

!s 

is 

is 

B.  \ 

I 

1 

I 

A.  gm 

— 

im,  gra 

e— 

F.    8 



is,  es,  8 

e— 

A.  6 

e 

T,  e 

' 

*  5o«=bov8,  bous ;  bobus,  bubiis='bovihns,  bonbus. 

2  The  Gen.  and  Dat.  Sing. — vis,  vi—are  rare. 

9  The  dash  denotes  that  the  case-ending  is  wanting. 


GREEK    NOUNS. 


27 


N.  es 

G.  iim 

D.  Ibus 

^.  es 

V.  6s 

^.  lb  us. 


iim 

Ibus 

ibus. 


PLURAL. 


lum 
Ibus 

68,  Is 

6s 

ibus. 


1.  Irregular  Case-Endings. — The  following  occur : 

1)  E,  for  «,  in  the  Dat.  Sing. :  aerS  for  aeri. 

2)  Eis,  for  15,  in  the  Ace.  Plur, :  civeis  for  civis^  cives. 

3)  Greek  Endings.     See  68. 


ift 

iiim 

ibiis 

i& 

is 

ibus. 


GREEK    NOUNS. 

68.  Most  Greek  nouns  of  the  third  declension  are  en- 
tirely regular,  but  a  few  retain  certain  peculiarities  of  the 
Greek.     The  following  are  examples  : 

Lampas,  r.,   Phryx,  m.  &  f.,    Heros,  m.,    Case-Endings. 
torch.  Phrygian.  hero. 


SINGULAR. 

heros 


N.  lampSs  Phryx 

O.  lampSdis,  ds  PhrygXs,  5s 

B.  lampidi  Phrygl 

A.  lampSd^in,  &  Phryg^m,  & 

V.  lampas  Phryx 

A.  lampud^  Phrygl 

PLURAL. 

N.  lampSdCs,  Cs  PhrygCs,  ^s        heroCs,  *s 

G.  lampSdiiiii  Phrygitm 

D.  lampadl"bits  PhrygXbils 

A.  Iamp5d€s,  &s  Phryg6!*<,  &s 

V.  larapades,  ^s  PhrygCs,  Cs 

A.  lampadibiis.  Phrygib&s. 

Pericles,  m.,         Paris,  m., 
Pericles.  Paris. 

K  PSriclCs 
G.  Pencils,  1 


herois 
herol 

hero^m,  & 
heros 
herO^ 


hcrOtkin 
herOXbils 
heroes,  &s 
heroCs,  6s 
heroibiks. 

Dido,  F., 
Dido. 


SINGULAR.' 


S 

is,  03 
I 
cm,  & 


es,  es 
urn 
ibus 
es,  Ss 
es,  Ss 
ibiis. 


Paris 

Paridis,  5s 


Didd 


Orpheus,  m., 
Orpheus. 

Orpheus ' 


Didus,  OnXs    Orph-eos,  el,  I 


•  The  Plural  is  of  course  wanting. 

^  Eu  &  diphthong  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc. :  ei  sometimes  a  diphthong  in  the  Gen. 
and  Dat 


28  THIRD   DECLENSION. 

D.  Pericll  Paridl  DidO,  onl         Orph-ei,  I,  e5 

A.  Pericl^m,  e^,  €n  \  ^    ^        . '         Dido,  on^m    Orphea,  eiim 
(  Parim,  in  '  ^        ' 

V.  Pericl€s,  ^s,  ©         Pari  DidO  Orpheu 

A.  Pericll.  Paride.  Dido,  on^.       OrpheO. 

1.  Paradigms. — Observe  that  these  paradigms  fluctuate  in  certain 
cases, — (1)  between  the  Latin  and  the  Greek  forms:  lampcid'zs,  ds ;  lam- 
padem,  a  ;  heroes,  as, — (2)  between  different  declensions :  Pericles,  be- 
tween Dec.  I.,  Periclen,  Fericle,  Dec.  II.,  Pericll  (Gen.),  and  Dec.  III., 
PericUs,  etc. :  Orpheus,  between  Dec.  II.,  Orphei,  Orpheo,  etc.,  and  Dec. 
III.,  Orpheos,  etc. 

2.  Nouns  in  ys  have  Gen.  ybs,  y s,  Ace.  ym,  yn :  Othrys,  Othryos, 
Othrym,  Othryn. 

3.  The  Vocative  Sing,  drops  s, — (1)  in  nouns  in  eus,  ys  and  in 
proper  names  in  Ss,  Gen.  antis  ;  Atlas,  Atla, — (2)  generally  in  nouns  in 
is  and  sometimes  in  other  words ;  Pari. 

4.  Genitive  Plur. — The  ending  on  occurs  in  a  few  titles  of  Books : 
MSiamorphoses  (title  of  a  poem),  Metamorphoseon. 

5.  Dative  and  Ablative  Plur. — The  ending  si,  before  vowels  sin, 
occurs  in  poetry :   Troades,  Troasin. 

6.  A  few  neuters  used  only  in  the  Nom.  Ace.  and  Voc.  have  bs  in  the 
Sing,  and  e  in  the  Plur. :  melos,  mele,  song. 


SYN^OPSIS    OF    THE    THIPvD    DECLENSION. 

I.  Nouns  ending  in  a  Vowel. 

69.  Nouns  in  ^  ; '       Genitive  in  Stis  :        Stem  in  St : 

poema,  poem,  poematis,  poemat. 

70.  Nouns  in  g  :  Genitive  in  is  :  Stem  in  I : 

mare,  sea,  maris,  mari. 

71.  Nouns  in  i  : '  Genitive  in  is  :  Stem  in  i  : 

sinapi,  mustard,         sinapis,  sina^  i. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  itis, — compounds  of  meli :  oxym^li,  oxymeUtis,  oxymel. 

2.  Many  nouns  in  i  are  indeclinable. 

72.  Nouns  in  6  :       Genitive  in  onis  :        Stem  in  6n  ; 

Leo,  lion,  leonis,  leon. 


^  These  are  of  Greek  origin. 


SYXOPSIS    OP   THE   THIRD    DECLENSION.  29 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  6nis : — most  national  names  :  M&c^doj  Maceddnis,  Macedonian. 

2.  inis:' — Apollo;  homo,  man;  n^mo,  nobody ;  <wr6o,  whirlwind ;  and 

nouns  in  do  and  go:  grando,  gratidmis,  hail;  virgo, 
virginis^  maiden;  except — Jiarjp&go^  onis;  llgo,  Onis; 
praedo,  onis,  also  cdm^do,  cudo,  mango,  sp&do,  unSdo^  udo. 

3.  nis: — caro,  carnis  (for  carinis^),  flesh.     See  65,  3,  2). 

4.  enis : — Anio,  Anienis,  river  Anio ;  Nerio,  Ncrienis. 
6.  US : — few  Greek  feminines :  Dido,  Didm.     See  C8. 

73.  Nouns  in  y  '^  :  Gen.  in  yis  (yos,  ys)  :   Stem  in  y  : 

misy,  copperas,  misyis  (yos,  ys),  misy. 

IL  Nouns  ending  in  a  Mute  or  Liquid. 

74.  Nouns  in  c  ;  only  dle^y  alecis,  pickle  ;  lac,  lactls, 
milk. 

75.  Nouns  in  1 :  Genitive  in  lis  :  Stem  in  1 : 

sol,  SU71,  soils,  sol. 

1.  Fel,  fcllis,  gall ;  mel,  mellis,  honey. 

2.  Neuters  in  SI :       Genitive  in  alis :     Stem  in  all : 

Snimal,  animal,     animalis,  animali. 

76.  Nouns  in  n  :       Genitive  in  nis  :        Stem  in  n  : 

paean,  paean,         pacanis,  paean. 

fluraSn,  stream,      fluminis,  flumSn,  in. 

1.  Nouns  in  $n  have  the  variable  radical  vowel — 8,  i.     Sec  60,  1,  2). 

2.  There  arc  a  few  Greek  words  in  on,  Gen.  in  5ni3,  ontis,  St,  in  6n, 
ont :  aedon,  acdonis,  nightingale ;  XSnuphon,  Xcnophontls,  Xenophon. 

77.  Nouns  in  r  :     Genitive  in  ris  :     Stem  in  r  : 

Guvc^T,  prison,      carcSris,  carcSr. 

I.  Nouns  in  ar:  (1)  Sr,  G.  aris,  St.  a^i ;  calcUr,  calcdris,  spur;  but  a 
few  have  G.  Sria,  St.  Sr ;  ned&r,  nectaris,  nectar :  (2)  ar,  G.  ^s,  St.  Sri : 
Zar, ^ria,  house ;  pdr,  p&ris,  ^air :  (3)  Fdr,  farris,  corn;  hep&r,  hepdtis, 
liver. 

II.  Nouns  in  er.     Some  drop  e  in  the  Genitive. 

1.  Those  inter:  ptit^r, patris,  father;  except  litt^,  lat^ris,  tile;i^^', 
itinSris,  way ;  JupitSr,  J5vis,  and  Greek  nouns ;  crater,  cratiris,  bowl. 

2.  ImhSr  and  names  of  months  in  bSr :  imhSr,  imhris,  shower ;  Sep- 
tember, SeptemhHs,  September. 

1  Stem  in  &n.  In.    See  GO,  1,  2). 

3  Nouns  in  y  are  of  Greelc  origin,  and  are  often  indeclinable. 


30  SYNOPSIS    OF   THE    THIKD    DECLEXSIOX. 

III.  Nouns  in  5r :  G.  oris,  St.  or :  pastor,  pastoris,  shepherd ;  but  a 
few  have  G.  5ris,  St.  Sr :  arbor,  arboris,  tree ;  aequor,  sea ;  marmor, 
marble.     But  cor,  cordis,  heart. 

IV.  Four  in  ur:  G.  6ris,  St.  br;  ebur,  ivovy;  femur,  i\Ag\i  -  jecnr, 
hver;  robur,  strength  ;  but  fSmur  has  ^\^o  femxnis,  and  jecur,  jecmdris, 
Jecineris,  a,ndjdnneris. 

78.  Nouns  in  lit  :     Genitive  in  itis  :     Stem  in  iit,  it  : 

caput,  head,  capitis,  caput,  it. 

III.    NOUXS    ENDING   IN   S  PRECEDED    BY   A   VoWEL. 

79.  Nouns  in  as  :       Genitive  in  atis  :        Stem  in  at  : 

aetas,  af/e,  aetatis,  aetat. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  atis : — a7ias,  anatis,  duck,  and  neuter  Greek  nouns. 

2.  Sdis  -.—vas,  vadis,  surety ;  Arc<is,  Arcadian,  and  fem.  Greek  nouns ;» 

lampas,  lampadis,  torch. 
8.  Sris : — mds,  maris,  a  male ;— stem,  m&s,  mari.     See  35. 

4.  asis : — vas,  vdsis,  vessel."-^ 

5.  assis : — as,  assis,  an  as  (a  coin). 

6.  antis :— only  masc.  Greek  nouns  ;  adama^,  antis,  adamant. 

80.  Nouns  in  es  :  Genitive  in  is  :  Stem  in  i  : ' 

nubes,  cloud,  nubis,  nubi. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  edis: — (1)  edis:  heres,  heredis,  heir;  merces,  reward. — (2)  Sdis: 
pes,  pMis,  foot. 

2.  aedis : — praes,  praedis,  surety. 

3.  eris  : — Ceres,  Cereris.^ 

4.  aeris : — aes,  acris,  copper."* 

6.  etis : — (1)  etis  :  quies,  rest,  with  compounds,  inquies,  requies,  and 
a  few  Greek  words  :  lebes,  tapes. — (2)  Stis :  abies,  fir-tree ; 
aries,  ram ;  paries,  wall. 

6.  essis : —  bes,  bessis,  two-thirds. 

81.  Nouns  in  Ss  :     Genitive  in  itis  :     Stem  in  gt,  it  : 

miles,  soldier,       militis,  milet,  it. 


1  Greek  nouns  sometimes  have  ddos  for  ddis. 

2  Vas  is  the  only  stem  in  s  which  does  not  change  s  to  r  between  two  vowels 
See  Gl,  1,  3). 

«  But  see  64,  1. 
<  See  61, 1,  3). 


SYNOPSIS    OF   THE    THIJil)    DKCI-EXSION.  31 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  Stis: — interpres,  interpreter;  sSges^  crop;  tSges,  covering. 

2.  idia : — obses,  hostage ;  prcteses,  president.     See  57,  2. 

82.  Nouns  in  is  :  Genitive  in  is  :  Stem  in  i  : 

^vis,  bird,  avis,  avi. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  Sris: — nnXs,   cinSris,^    ashes;    cucumis,   cucumber;  pulvis,   dust; 

vcJmw,  ploughshare. 

2.  idis: — capis,   cup;    casais^   helmet;    cu»pis,   spear;    l&pis,   stone; 

promuIslH,  antepast,  and  a  few  Greek «  words :  as  fpranniSy 
Xdis,  tyranny.     Sometimes  ibis,  and  iigris. 

3.  3[ni8  -.—pollis  or  pollen,  flour ;  sanguis,  blood. 

4.  iris  : — glls,  gliris,^  dormouse. 

5.  issis : — semis,  semissis,  half  an  as :  stem,  semis^,  semiss. 

6.  Itis : — lis,*  strife ;  Bis,  Quiris,  Samnis. 

83.  Nouns  in  6s  :       Genitive  in  5ris  :       Stem  in  5s  : 

mos,  custom,  moris,  mos. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  5tis : — cos,  cdiis,  whetstone ;  dos,  dowry ;  n^pos,  grandson  ;  sdcer- 

dos,  priest ;  and  a  few  Greek  words. 

2.  5dia : — msios,  cusiodis,  guardian.     See  36. 

3.  5is : — a  few  masc.  Greek  nouns :  heros,  hero ;  Minos^  Tros. 

4.  bris : — arbos  or  arbdr,  tree. 

5.  ossis : — us,  ossis,  bone :  stem,  ossi,  oss. 

6.  bvis : — bos,  bHvis,  ox.     See  66. 

84.  Nouns  in  us  :  Genitive  in  gris  or  iJris  :  Stem  in 
Ss  or  6s. 

I.  Sris: — ld,tus,latSris,&\diQ:  stem,  lUtSs.  So  also:  iicus,foedus,filnus, 
gSnus,  glSmus,  munus,  6lus,  dnus,  8pus,  pondus,  rudus,  septus,  stdus,  ulcus, 
vellus,  VSnus,  viscus,  vulmis. 

II.  bris : — corpus,  corporis,  body :  stem,  corpus.  So  also  dScus,  ded^cus, 
fdcinus,  feniis,  frlgus,  iSpis,  Utm,  n^mus,  pectus,  pScus,  p^rms,  pignus,  ster 
cus,  tempus,  tergics. 


»  Stem  clnls,  dlnir  for  dinis  with  variable  vowel  I,  <?.    See  28,  85,  and  57,  2. 
2  Greek  nouns  sometimes  have  idos  or  even  ios  for  idis;  Sdldmls  has  Sakiminit; 
Simoia,  SimoentU. 

•  Stem  gll9,  gllri  for  gllH,  85. 

*  Stem  mi,  lit. 


32  SYNOPSIS    OF   THE   THIRD   DECLENSION. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  uris: — (1)  uris :   crus^  leg;  jv^^  right;  jus^  soup;  mus,  mouse; 

pus,  pus  ;  rws,  country ;  tv^  (thus),  incense ;  telltts^  earth. 
— (2)  uris  :  Ligus,  Liguris,  Ligurian.     See  61. 

2.  utis : — -jicventus,  youth ;  siilus,  safety ;  senedus,  old  age ;  servitus^ 

servitude ;  virtus^  virtue.     See  36. 

3.  udis : — (1)  udis :  incus,  anvil ;  palm,  marsh ;  subscus,  dovetail. — 

(2)  -adis :  pecus,  pecudis,  a  head  of  cattle. 

4.  audis : — -fraus,  fraudis,  fraud  ;  laus,  praise.     See  65,  2,  foot-note. 
6.  uis  : — -grus,  grids,  crane  ;  sus,  swine. 

6.  untis : — a  few  Greek  names  of  places :   Trajiczus,  untis. 

7.  c5dis  : — Greek  compounds  in  pus :  tripm,  tripodis,  tripod. 

8.  eos  : — Greek  nouns  in  eus,  when  of  this  declension.     See  68. 

85.  Nouns  in  ys  :  ^  Gen.  in  yis,  yos,  ys  :  Stem  in  y : 

Othiys,  Othryos,  Othry. 

rV.  Nouns  ending  in  s  peeceded  by  a  Consonant. 

86.  Nouns  in  bs  :       Genitive  in  bis  :       Stem  in  bi  :  ** 

urbs,  city,  urbis,  urbi. 

87.  Nouns  in  ms  :       Genitive  in  mis  :       Stem  in  m  : 

hiems,  winter,  hiemis,  liiem. 

88.  Nouns  in  eps  :    Genitive  in  ipis  :    Stem  in  gp,  ip. 

princeps,  jormce,     principis.  princep,  ip. 

1.  But  auceps,  aucupis,  fowler. 

2.  Other  nouns  in  ps  retain  the  stem-vowel  unchanged :  m^rops,  mero- 
pis,  bee-eater. 

3.  Gryps,  gryphis,  griffin. 

89.  Nouns  in  Is  :     Genitive  in  Itis  :     Stem  Iti : 

puis,  broth,  pultis,  pulti. 

90.  Nouns  in  ns  :     Genitive  in  ntis  :     Stem  in  nti:^ 

mens,  mind,  mentis,  mentl 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

dis : — frons,  frondis,  leaf ;  glans,  acorn  ;  juglans,  walnut.     See  65,  2. 


^  These  are  of  Greek  oripfin ;  a  few  of  them  have  ydis  :  chldmys,  chlamydis,  cloak. 
*  Dissyllables  have  the  stem  in  &. 
3  Dissyllables  have  the  stem  in  t. 


SYXOPSI.i    OF    TUE    THIRD    DECLENSIOX.  33 

91.  Nouns  in  rs  :      Genitive  in  rtis  :       Stem  in  rti  : 

ars,  art,  artis,  arii. 

V.  Nouns  ending  in  x. 

92.  Nouns  in  ax  :      Genitive  in  acis  :       Stem  in  ac  ; 

pax,  peace^  pacis,  pac. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  Scis  :—fax,  fdcis^  torch  ;  and  a  few  Greek  nouns. 

2.  actis  : — a  few  Greek  names  of  men :  Asty&nax. 

93.  Nouns  in  ex  :     Genitive  in  icis  :     Stem  in  ic,  Sc : 

judex,  JwcT^e,        judicis,  judic,  ec. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  ecis: — (1)   ecis:    alex^   pickle;   vervex,   wether. — (2)   Scis:    nex, 

murder ;  fenisex,  mower. 

2.  aecis  : — faex,  faecis,  lees. 

3.  egis: — (1)  egia :    lex,  law;   rex,  king,  and  their  compounds. — (2) 

egis :  grex,  flock ;  aquilex,  water-inspector. 

4.  ectilis : — supellex,  supellectiUs,  furniture.* 

5.  igis : — remex,  remigis,  rower.     See  28,  2,  1). 

6.  is : — senex,  s^nis,  old  man.     See  66,  1. 

94.  Nouns  in  ix  :     Genitive  in  icis  :     stem  in  ic  : 

radix,  7'oot,  radicis,  radio. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  iCcis  : — appendix,  appendix ;  c&lix,  cup ;  fornix,  arch ;  pix,  pitch ; 

sS,Ux,  willow,  and  a  few  others. 

2.  igis: — strix,  screech-owl;   and  a  few  Gallic  names:    Dumndrix, 

OrgetSrix. 

3.  Xvis  : — nix,  nivis,  snow.     See  66. 

95.  Nouns  in  ox  :  only  vox,  vocis,  voice  ;  nox,  noctis, 
nij^ht. 

There  are  also  a  few  national  names  in  ox,  Gen.  in  bcis  or  bgis : 
Cappddox,  Cappad5cis ;  AllUbrox,  AllobrHgis. 

96.  Nouns  in  ux  :     Genitive  in  ucis  :  Stem  in  uc  : 

dux,  leader^  dtlcis,  dtto. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  ucis: — lux,  lucis,  light;  Pollux. 


Stem.  m'lpeUec.  triipellectil. 


34  GENDER    IN   THIRD    DECLENSION. 

2.  aucis: — -faux  {dei.)faucis,  throat. 

3.  ugis: — (1)  vLgis:  frux,  frugis,  fruit. — (2)  ugis:  conjux,  conjugis^ 

spouse. 

97.  Nouns  in  yx  :  from  the  Greek,  variously  declined  : 
Eryx^  Erycis,  Eryx  ;  homhyx^  bomhycis,  silkworm  ;  Styx, 
StygiSy  Styx  ;  coccyx,  coccygis,  cuckoo  ;  6nyx,  onychis, 
onyx. 

98.  Nouns  in  x  preceded  by  a  consonant : 

Genitive  in  cis  :     Stem  in  ci  : 
arx,  citadel,  arcis,  arci. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 
gis : — A  few  Greek  nouns :  pMlanx^  plialangis^  phalanx. 

GENDER  m  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

99.  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  in 

O,  or,  OS,  er,  and  es  increasing  in  the  genitive,^ 
are  masculine  :   sermo,  discourse  ;   ddldr,  pain ;  mos,  cus- 
tom ;  agger,  mound  ;  pes,  genitive  pMis,  foot. 

1 00.  Exceptions  in  O. — Feminine^  viz. : 

1.  Nouns  in  o,  Gen.  mis^  except  cardo,  ordo^  turbo,  masc,  cupido  and 

margo,  masc.  or  fern. 

2.  Cdro,  flesh,  and  the  Greek  Argo,  echo,  an  echo. 

3.  Most  abstract  and  collective  nouns  in  io :  ratio,  reason ;  concio,  an 

assembly. 

101.  Exceptions  in  OR: 

1.  Feminine: — arbor,  tree. 

2.  Neuter : — Hdar,  spelt ;  aequor,  sea ;  cor,  heart ;  marmor,  marble. 

102.  Exceptions  in  OS: 

1.  Feminine : — arbos,  tree ;  cos,  whetstone ;  dos,  dowry ;  eos,  dawn. 

2.  Neuter : — os,  mouth ;  os,  bone ;  and  a  few  Greek  words :  chaos. 

103.  Exceptions  in  ER: 

1.  Feminine: — lintSr,  boat  (sometimes  masc). 

2.  Neuter : — (1)  cadaver,  corpse ;  iter,  way ;  tuber,  tumor  ;  uber,  udder ; 

ver,  spring ;  verber,  scourge, — (2)  botanical  names  in  er,  Gen. 
^ris :  Uc^r,  maple-tree ;  pclpaver,  poppy. 

*  That  Is,  having  more  syllables  in  the  genitive  than  in  the  nominative. 


GENDER   IX   THIRD    DECLEXSIOX.  86 

104.  Exceptions  in  ES: 

1.  Feminine: — compes^  fetter;  niercds^  reward;  tnergSs,  sheaf;  quiis, 

rest  (with  its  compounds) ;  sSg^^  crop  ;  t^gSs,  mat ;  sometimes 
al^s,  bird,  and  quUdrupes,  quadruped. 

2.  Neuter : — ac«,  copper. 

105.  Nouiis  of  the  Third  Declension  in 
as,  is,  ys,  x,  es  not  increasing  in  the  genitive^  and  a  pre- 
ceded hy  a  consonant^ 
are  feminine  :   aetds,  age  ;   ndvis,  ship  ;   chldm^s,  cloak ; 
pax,  peace  ;  nUbes,  cloud  ;  urbs,  city. 

106.  ExcEPTioxs  IN  AS: 

1.  Masculine: — Os,  an  as  (a  coin),  v&s,  surety,  and  Greek  nouns  in  ai, 

G.  antis. 

2.  Xeuter : — vds,  vessel,  and  Greelc  nouns  in  as,  G.  Uiis. 

1 07.  Exceptions  in  IS  and  YS. — Masculine : 

1.  Nouns  in  alls,  ollis,  cia,  mis,  nis,  guis,  quis :  natalts,  birthday ; 

iffnis,  fire  ;  sanguis,  blood.     But  a  few  of  these  are  occasion- 
ally feminine :  c5ww,  amnis,  cinis,  flnis^  aji(piis,  torqitia. 

2.  Axis,  axle ;  buris,  plough-tail ;  callis  (f ),  path  ;  ^  ensis,  sword ;  lcipij\ 

stone ;  niensis,  month  ;  07'bis,  circle ;  postis,  post ;  pulv'is,  dust ; 
sentis,  brier;  torris,  brand;  vectis,  lever,'  and  a  few  others. 
8.  Names  of  mountains  in  ys :   Othrps. 

108.  Exceptions  in  X. — Masculine: 

1.  Greek  masculines  :  corax,  raven  ;  thdrax,  cuirass. 

2.  Nouns  in  ex  and  unx ;  except  the  feminines :  faex,  forfex,  IcXy 

ncx,  (prex,)  siipellcx. 

3.  CtHiz,  cup ;  fornix,  arch ;  phoenix,  phoenix ;  trOdux,  vine-layer,  and 
a  few  nouns  in  yx. 

4.  Sometimes :  calx,  heel ;  calx,  lime ;  h/nx,  a  lynx. 

109.  Exceptions  in  ES: 

1.  Masculine: — Hcln&cis,   cimeter;   sometimes  pHlumbes,  dove;   and 

v^res,  thorn-bush. 

2.  Neuter : — a  few  Greek  nouns :  cUcoethSs,  desire  ;  hipp6mGinis,  \\\\> 
pomane. 

110.  Exceptions  in  S  preceded  by  a  Consonant. — Masculine: 

1.  Dens,  tooth  ;  fons,  fountain  ;  mons,  mountain  ;  pons,  bridge ;  gener- 
ally adeps,  fat,  and  rudens,  cable. 

'  Sometimes  feminine. 

^  For  nonos  ia  Is  maflcuUae  bv  si^ifieatlon,  tee  42, 1. 

8 


3G  FOURTH   DECLENSIOX. 

2.  Some  nouns  in  ns,  originally  adjectives  or  participles  with  a  masc. 

noun  understood:  drie7is  (sol),  east;  confuens  (amnis),  con- 
fluence ;  tridens  (raster),  trident ;  quadrans  (as),  quarter. 

3.  Chdlyhs^  steel ;  hydrops^  dropsy,  and  a  few  other  Greek  words. 

4.  Sometimes :  forceps^  forceps ;  serpens^  serpent ;  siirps,  stock.     AnX- 

mans,  animal,  is  masc,  fem.,  or  neuter. 

111.  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  in 

a,  e,  i,  y,  c,  1,  n,  t,  ar,  nr,  and  us, 

are  neuter  :  poemd,  poem  ;  mdre,  sea  ;  lac,  milk ;  dntmdl, 
animal ;  carmen,  song  ;  cdj^Ht,  head  ;  corpiis,  body. 

112.  Exceptions  in  Ij  and  AR : — Masculine  : 

Muffil,  mullet;  sdl,^  salt;  sol,  sun;  Idr,  hearth;  saldr,  trout. 

113.  Exceptions  in  N: 

1.  Masculine : — pectin,  comb ;  ren,  kidney ;  lien,  spleen ;  and  Greek 

masculines  in  an,  en,  in,  on :  paedn,  paean ;  c&ndn,  rule. 

2.  Feminine : — aedon,  nightingale ;  alojGn  (halcyon),  kingfisher ;  ?c5n, 

image ;  sindon,  musUn. 

114.  Exceptions  in  UR. — Masculine- 
Furfur,  bran ;  turtur,  turtle-dove ;  vuliur,  vulture. 

115.  Exceptions  in  US: 

1.  Masculine : — lepus,  hare ;  mus,  mouse ;  and  Greek  nouns  in  pus. 

2.  Feminine : — tellus,  earth ;  frau^,  fraud ;  lau^,  praise ;  and  nouns  in 

us,  Gen.  utis  or  udis :  virtus,  virtue ;  palus,  marsh. 

FOURTH    DECLEJ^SION:    U    NOUNS. 
116.  Nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  end  in 

lis, — masculine;  u, — 7ieuter, 
They  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Fructus,  fruit. 

Cornu, 

horn. 

singular. 

Case-Endings. 

K  fructils 

comll. 

iis                    ii 

G.  fructtts 

comtts 

as                  us 

D.  fructm 

comllL 

ul                     11 

A.  fructitm 

comtt 

iim                    a 

V.  fructiis 

comfk 

iis                      fL 

A.  fructm 

comtt 

ti                  a 

Sometimes  neuter  in  the  elngular. 


FOURTH    DECLEXSIOX.  8? 


PLURAL. 

K 

fructtls 

conm& 

Us 

uX 

G. 

fructuiim 

conniAm 

uiim 

uum 

J). 

fructib&s 

cornibiis 

ibiis  (ubiis) 

ibiis  (iibiis) 

A. 

fructas 

corrmft 

us 

ua 

V. 

fructlks 

cornud, 

us 

ua 

A. 

fructi1>&>!(. 

cornibAs. 

ibiis  (ubiis). 

rbiis  (iibiis). 

1.  Stem. — In  nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  the  item  ends  in  Hi 
fntctUy  comu. 

2.  Case-Exdings. — The  oase-endings  here  given  contain  the  stem-end- 
ing u,  weakened  to  X  in  Kbas^  but  retained  in  uhus.     See  30. 

117.  Irregular  Case-Endings. — The  following  occur : 

1.  Ubiis  for  thus,  used  regularly  in  the  Dat.  and  Abl.  Plur.  of 
Acm,  needle;  arcus,  bow;  artm,  joint;    l&ais,  lake;  partus,  birth; 

p^cu,  cattle;  quercus,  oak;  sp^cus,  den;  trtbus,  tribe;  vSru,  spit:  occa- 
sionally in  a  few  other  words,  as  poriiis,  sinus,  and  idnifrus. 

2.  UIs,  the  uncontracted  form  for  us,  in  the  Gen. :  fi-uctuis  for  fi-uctus. 

3.  U  for  ui,  in  the  Dat.  by  contraction  :  Squitatu  for  equitalui,  cavalry. 

118.  Exceptions  in  Gender. 

1.  Feminine: — (1)  ^eu*,  needle ;  c^lu^,  distaff;  cKmi«,  house ;  m&mUf 

hand ;  porOcus,  portico  ;  trtbiis,  tribe, — (2)  idus,  ides ;  Quin- 
quatrus,  feast  of  Minerva ;  generally  pSnus,  store,  when  of 
this  decl. ;  rarely  species,  den, — (3)  see  42,  II. 

2.  Xeuter : — secus  (sexus),  sex ;  rarely,  sp^cus,  den. 

119.  Second  and  Fourth  Declensions. — Some  nouns  are  partly 
of  the  fourth  declension  and  partly  of  the  second. 

1.  D6mus,  v.,  house,  has  a  Locative  form  dorni,  at  home,  and  ia  other- 
wise  declined  as  follows  : 

SINGULAR.  plural. 

2^.  domiis  domiis 

G.  domus  domuiim,  domOriim 

D.  domui  (domo)  domlfbiis 

A.  domiim  domSs,  domiis 

V.  domiis  domus 

A.  domS  (domii)  domlfbiis. 

2.  Certain  names  of  trees  in  vs,  as  cupressus,  ficut,  laurus,  pinus, 
though  generally  of  Decl.  II.,  sometimes  take  those  cases  of  the  fourth 
which  end  in  i«  and  u :  N.  laurus,  G.  laurus,  D.  lauro,  A.  launim,  V, 
laurus,  A.  lauru,  &c.     So  also  colus,  distaff. 


38 


FIFTH   DECLENSION. 


8.  A  few  nouns,  especially  sendtm  and  tmnultm^  though  regularly  of 
Decl.  IV.,  sometimes  take  the  genitive  ending  i  of  the  second:  sendti^ 
tumuUi. 


FIFTH    DECLENSIOIT:    B    IsTOUN^S. 

120.  Nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  end  in  6s, — -femi- 
nine^ and  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Dies,  day. 

Res,  thing. 

SINGULAR. 

Case-Endings. 

K  di«s 

res 

9a 

G.  di€I 

rei 

el 

jD.  did 

rei 

el 

A.  di^m 

rem 

Sm 

V.  dies 

res 

^ 

A.  di© 

re 

PLURAL. 

e 

N.  dies 

res 

es 

G.  dieriim 

rer&m 

6rum 

D.  diel>iis 

rei>iis 

Cbus 

A.  dies 

res 

6s 

r.  dies 

res 

es 

A.  diebtks. 

rei>iis. 

6bus. 

1.  Stem.— The  stem  of  nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  ends  in  S: 
die^  re. 

2.  Cabe-Exdikgs. — The  case-endings  here  given  contain  the  stem- 
ending  e,  which  appears  in  all  the  cases.  It  is  shortened  (1)  in  the  ending 
el,  when  preceded  by  a  consonant,  and  (2)  in  the  ending  em. 

3.  Irregular  Endings  : — e  or  I  for  ei  in  the  Gen.  and  Dat. :  (icie  for 
acui  ;  permcii  for  perniciei. 

4.  Defective. — Nouns  of  this  declension,  except  dks  and  res,  want  the 
Gen.,  Dat.,  and  Abl.  Plur.,  and  many  admit  no  plural  whatever. 

121.  Exceptions  in  Gender. — ^Masculine:  Dies,  day,  a.nd  m^j-ldies, 
mid-day,  though  dies  is  sometimes  feminine  in  the  singular. 

122.  The  Five  Declensions,  which  are  only  varieties  of  one 
general  system  of  inflection,  have  been  produced  by  the  union  of 
the  different  final  letters  of  the  stem  with  the  following : 


COMPARATIVE    VIEW    OF   DECLEXSIONS. 


39 


Case-Endixgs  for  all  Nouns. 

SINGULAR. 


Masc. 

and  Fern, 

Neut. 

Norn. 

s  — 

m  — 

Gen. 

l[s,li 

to,I 

Dot. 

I 

I 

Ace. 

m,  em' 

m  — 

Voc. 

8  

m  — 

Abl. 

d,  ed* 

PLUEAL. 

d,  gd 

Kom. 

S8,I4 

ft 

Gen. 

iim,  riim  * 

iim,  rum 

Dat. 

bus,  ibus, 

Is  4 

bus,  Ibiis,  la 

Aee. 

ms,  ems* 

& 

Voe. 

6s,  I 

ft 

Abl. 

bus,  Ibus, 

Is  4. 

biis,  Ibus,  Is. 

123. 

Btems  so  as  to  produce  the  five  declensions  may  be  seen  in  the  following 
Comparative  View  of  Declensions. 


N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 
A. 


I. 

Mensa. 

II. 

Servo. 

III. 
Reg. 

IV. 
Fmctu. 

V. 
Re. 

SINGULAR. 

j  mensa- 
l  mens  ft 

servos 
servus 

rcff-s 
rex 

fructu-s 
fructus 

res 

mensa-i 
mensae 

servo-i 
serv'i 

rep-is 
rSgIs 

fructu-is 
fructus 

re-i 
rel 

(  mensa-i 
I  mensae 

servo-i 
servS 

reff-i 
regl 

fructu-i 
fructul 

re-i 
rei 

mensa-m 
mensftm 

servo-m 
seivum 

reg-eiyi 
reg-em 

fructu-m 
fructiim 

re-m 
rem 

mensa- 
mensft 

servo- 
serve' 

reg-s 
rex 

fructu-s 
fructus 

res 
res 

(  mensa-d 
(  mensa 

servo-d 
servo 

reg-ed 
regS 

fruciu-d 
fructu 

re-d 
re 

»  The  endings  I  and  rum  are  used  with  stems  in  a,  o,  and  e;  U  and  Urn  with  other 
stems. 

»  The  endings  m  and  ms  are  used  with  vowel  stems,  im  and  ems  (with  connecting 
vowel  S)  with  consonant  stems.  The  plural  endings  ms  and  ems  are  formed  by 
adding  s  to  the  singular.  Mia  then  dropped,  and  the  preceding  vowel  is  lengthened  in 
compensation ;  hence  ds,  ds,  is,  etc.    See  27. 

•  The  ending  d  was  originally  used  with  vowel  stems,  and  id  (with  connecting 
vowel  f)  with  consonant  stems.  D  was  afterwards  dropped,  and  the  preceding  vowel, 
if  short,  was  lengthened,  except  i  in  Dec.  III.,  which  was  only  a  connecting  vowel. 

•  The  endings  I  and  f«  are  used  with  stems  in  a  and  o  ;  is  with  other  stems;  Ms 
with  stems  in  u  and  e ;  Xbiis  (with  connecting  vowel  J)  with  consonant  stems. 

•  Nouns  In  tM  of  Dec.  II.  change  the  stem-vowel  o  IntQ  «. 


40 


GENERAL  TABLE  OF  GENDEB. 


K 

\  mensa-i 

servo-i 

1  mensae 

servi 

G. 

j  mensa-rum 

servo-rum 

\  mensarum 

servorum 

D. 

j  mensa-is 

servo-is 

I  mensis 

servls 

A. 

{  mcnsa-ms 

servo-ins 

1  mensas 

servos 

V. 

^  mensa-i 

servo-i 

}  mensae 

servl 

A. 

j  mensa-is 

servo-is 

\  mensis. 

servls. 

PLURAL. 

reg-es 

reges 

reg-um, 

regum 

reg-ibics 

regibiis 

reg-em^ 

reges 

reg-es 

reges 

reg-ibics 

regibiis. 


frudu-es 

fructus 

fructu-mn 

fructuum 

fructu-hus 

fructibiis 

fructu-ms 

fructus 

frudu-es 

fructus 

frudu-hus 

fructtbus. 


re-€t 

res 

re-rum 

reriim 

re-bus 

rebus 

re-ms 

res 

re-es 

res 

re-bus 

Kbus. 


124.  General  Table  of  Gender. 
I.  Gender  independent   of    ending/ 
declensions. 


Common  to  all 


Masculine. 
Names    of   Males,    of 
Rivers,  Winds,  and 
Months. 


Feminine. 
Names  of  Females,  of 
Countries,     Towns, 
Islands,  and  Trees. 


Neater. 
Indeclinable     Nouns, 
and      Words      and 
Clauses  used  as  Iiv- 
dedinable  Nouns. 


II.  Gender  determined  by  Nominative  Ending.' 


Declension  I. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

as,e3. 

a,  e. 

Declension  II. 

er,  ir,  us,  os. 

1 

I 
Declension  III. 

o,  or,  OS,  er,  es 

in- 

as,  is,  ys,  x,   es  not 

creating  in  the  geni- 

increasing in  the  gen- 

tive. 

itive^  s  preceded  by  a 
consonant. 

Declension  IV. 

U8. 

1 

1 

Neuter. 


um,  on. 


a,  e,  i,  y,  c,  1,  n,  t, 
ar,  ur,  us. 


Declension  V. 


*  For  exceptions,  see  43. 

*  For  exceptions,  see  imder  the  several  declensions. 


CO^IPOUND  NOUNS. 


41 


COMPOUND    NOUNS. 

1 25*  Compounds  present  in  general  no  peculiarities  of  declen- 
sion.   But 

1.  If  two  nominatives  unite,  they  are  both  declined:  respublica  =  res 
publica,  republic,  the  public  thing ;  jiisjurandum  =  jus  jurandum,  oath. 

2.  If  a  nominative  unites  with  an  oblique  case,  only  the  nominative  is 
declined:  patcrfUmilids  =^  p&tSr  familias  (49,  1),  ot  p&ter  familiae,  the 
father  of  a  family. 

126.  Paradigms. 


iV.  rgspubllca 
G.  relpublicae 
D.  relpublicae 
A.  rempubllcSm 
V.  respubllcS 
A.  r6publica 


jusjurandum 

jurisjurandl 

jurijurandO 

jusjurandum 

jusjurandum 

jurejurando 


pSterfimllias 

patrisfamilias 

patrifamiUas 

patremfamilias 

paterfamilias 

patrgfamilias 


N.  respubUcae 
O.  rSrumpublic&riim 
D.  rfibuspubltcls 
A.  respublicSs 
V.  respubllcae 
A.  rebuspubllcis. 


jurajurandS 


jurajurand& 
jurajurandS 


patresfamilias 

patnimfamilias 

patrlbusfamilias 

patresfamilias 

patresfamilias 

patribusfamilias. 


1.  The  parts  which  compose  these  and  similar  words  are  often  and 
perhaps  more  correctly  written  separately :  res  pubUca  /  pater  familias  or 
fcaniliae. 

2.  Paterfamilias  sometimes  has  familidrum  in  the  plural :  patresfami- 
Udrum. 

IPwREGULAR   NOUNS. 

1 27.  Irregular  nouns  may  be  divided  into  four  classes : 

I.  Indeclinable  Nouns  have  but  one  form  for  all  cases. 

II.  Defectiyb  Nouns  want  certain  parts. 

III.  IIeteroclites  {MteroclUa  *)  are  partly  of  one  declension 
and  partly  of  another. 

IV.  Heterogeneous  Nouns  (Mterdg^nea^)  are  partly  of  one 
gender  and  partly  of  another. 


'  From  «T<po?,  another,  and  xKiait,  in/lection,  I.  c,  of  different  declensions. 
»  From  irepos,  another,  and  y/eof,  gender,  i.  e.,  of  different  gendenu 


42  IRREGULAR   NOUNS. 

I.    I:S  DECLINABLE   NOTJNS. 

1 28.  The  Latin  has  but  few  indeclinable  nouns : 

1.  i^os,  right;  nefds,  wrong;  instur,  equality  \  mfln^,  morning ;  hihtl^ 
nothing ;  po7idd,  pound ;  s^cus,  sex. 

2.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  b,  c,  alpha,  betd,  etc. 

8.  Foreign  words :  Jacob,  llibSn  ;  though  these  are  often  declined. 

II.  Defective  Isouns. 

129.  Nouns  may  be  defective  in  Number,  in  Cau,  or  in  both 
Kumber  and  Case, 

130.  Plural  vtantixg. — Many  nouns  from  the  nature  of 
their  signification  want  the  plural :  Roma,  Rome ;  jttstttia,  justice ; 
auriim,  gold. 

1.  The  principal  nouns  of  this  class  are : 

1)  Most  names  of  persons  and  places :  Cccero,  R&ma. 

2)  Abstract  Nouns :  fides,  faith ;  justitia,  justice. 

3)  Names  of  materials :  aurum,  gold ;  ferrum,  iron. 

4)  A  few  others :  merldies,  midday ;  specimen,  example ;  mpellex,  furni- 
ture ;  ver,  spring ;  vespera,  evenuig,  etc. 

2.  Proper  names  admit  the  plural  to  designate  families,  classes ;  names 
of  materials,  to  designate  pieces  of  the  material  or  articles  made  of  it ;  and 
abstract  nouns,  to  designate  instances,  or  hinds,  of  the  quality ;  Scipiones, 
the  Scipios ;  aera,  vessels  of  copper ;  avdrltiae,  instances  of  avarice ;  odia, 
hatreds. 

In  the  poets,  the  plural  of  abstracts  occurs  in  the  sense  of  the  singular. 

131.  Sixgulae  wanting. — ^Many  nouns  want  the  singular. 

1.  The  most  important  of  these  are : 

1)  Certain  personal  appellatives  applicable  to  classes:  majarcs,  fore- 
fathers ;  posteri,  descendants ;  gemvni,  twins ;  I'iberi,  children. 

2)  Many  names  of  cities :  Athenae,  Athens ;  TJieba^,  Thebes ;  Delphi^ 
Delphi. 

3)  Many  names  of  festivals :  BaccJidndlia,  Olympia,  Sdiurndlia. 

4)  Arma,  arms  ;  divUiae,  riches ;  exsequiae,  funeral  rites ;  exuviae,  spoils; 
idus,  ides ;  indutiae,  truce ;  insidiae,  ambuscade ;  mdnes,  shades  of  the 
dead ;  mlnae,  threats ;  moenia,  walls ;  munia,  duties ;  nuptiae,  nuptials ; 
reliquiae,  remains. 

2.  An  individual  member  of  a  class  designated  by  these  plurals  may  be 
denoted  by  unus  ex  with  the  plural :  unus  ex  liberis,  one  of  the  children,  or 
a  child. 

3.  The  plural  in  names  of  cities  may  have  reference  to  the  several  parts 
of  the  city,  especially  as  ancient  cities  were  often  made  up  of  separate 


DEFECTIVE    NOUNS. 


48 


villages.    So  in  the  names  of  festivals,  the  plural  may  refer  to  the  various 
games  and  exercises  which  together  constituted  the  festival. 

132.  Plural  with  Change  of  Meaning. — Some  nouns  have 
one  signification  in  the  singular  and  another  in  the  plural.     Thus : 


PLUEAL. 

nodes,  (1)  temples^  (2)  a  houMj 

auxilia,  auxiliaries. 

carceres,  barriers  of  a  race-course. 

castra,  camp. 

comitia,  the  assembly  held  in  the  co- 
mitium. 

copiae,  (1)  stores^  (2)  troops. 

facultates,  wealthy  means. 

fines,  borders,  territory. 

fortunae,  possessions^  wealth. 

gratiae,  thanks. 

horti,  (1)  gardens,  (2)  pleasure-grounds. 

impedimenta,  (1)  hindrances,  (2)  bag- 
gage. 

litterae,  (1)  letters  of  alphabet,  (2)  epis- 
tle, writing,  letters,  literature. 

ludi,  (!)  plays,  (2),  public  spectacle, 

mores,  manners,  character. 

natiles,  pedigree,  parentage, 

opSrae,  worhnen. 

partes,  {\)  parts,  (2)  a  party. 

rostra,  (1)  beaJcs,  (2)  the  rostra  or 
tribune  in  Borne  (adorned  with 
beaks). 

s^les,  witty  sayings. 

133.  Defective  in  Case. — Some  nouns  are  defectire  in  case. 
Thus: 

1.  In  the  Nom.,  Dat.,  and  Voc.  Sing. :  (Ops),  Spis,  help  ;  (vix  or  vicis), 
vicis,  change. 

2.  In  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing. :  (Daps),  dfipis, /oo<f;  (dttio),  dItiOnis, 
ttfrtv  /  (fnix),  frugis,  fniU  ;  (intem§cio),  intemScidnis,  destruction  ;  (pol- 
lls),  pollinis,  ^owr. 

3.  In  the  Gen.,  Dat.  and  Abl.  Plur. :  most  nouns  of  the  fifth  declen- 
sion.   See  120,  4. 

So  also  many  neuters :  far,  fSl,  mffl,  pQs,  rUs,  tUs  ;  especially  Greek 
neuters  in  5«,  which  want  these  cases  in  the  singular  also :  ^pos,  mXlos. 


8INGCL.VB. 

AedSs,  temple  ; 
Auxllium,  help  ; 
CaxciiT, prison,  barrier; 
Castrum,  castle,  hut; 
Comitium,  name  of  a  part  of  the 

Bojnan  forum  ; 
COpia,  plenty,  force  ; 
F&cultas,  altility  ; 
Finis,  end; 
Fort  Q  na,  fort  unc  ; 
Gratia,  gratitude,  favor  ; 
Ilortus,  garden  ; 
Imp«$dlmentum,  hindrance ; 

Litl^ra,  Idter  of  alphabet; 

litidviB,  play,  sport ; 

M68,  custom  ; 

Natalls  (dies),  birth-day  ; 

Opera,  work,  service  ; 

Pars,  part ; 

Rostrum,  heak  of  ship  ; 


Sal,  salt ; 


1  Aedes  and  some  other  wordB  in  this  list,  it  will  be  observed,  have  in  the  plural 
two  significations,  one  corresponding'  to  that  of  the  singular,  and  the  other  distinct 

fttUB  it. 


44  HETEKOCLITES. 

4.  In  the  Gen.  Plur. :  many  nouns  otherwise  entire,  especially  mono- 
syllables :  nez,  pax,  piz  ;  cdr,  cOs,  rda  ;  sdl,  s6l,  lux. 

1 34.  Number  and  Case. — Some  nouns  want  one  entire  num- 
ber and  certain  cases  of  the  other :  fors,  chance,  has  only  fors 
and  forte;  lues,  pestilence,  has  lues,  luem,  lue.  Many  verbal 
nouns  in  u  have  only  the  ablative  singular :  jussu,  by  order ;  man- 
ddtu,  by  command ;  rogdtu,  by  request. 

III.  Heteeoclites. 

135.  Of  Declensioxs  II.  and  IV.  are  a  few  nouns  in  U8. 
See  119. 

136.  Of  Declensions  II.  and  III.  are 

1.  Jugerum,  an  acre;  generally  of  the  second  Decl.  in  the  Sing.,  and 
of  the  third  in  the  Plur. :  jugerum,  jugeri  ;  plural,  jt^^a,  jugerum,  jugeribus. 

2.  Vd8,  a  vessel ;  of  the  third  Decl.,  in  the  Sing,  and  of  the  second  in 
the  Plur. :  vas,  vasts  ;  plural,  tdsa,  vasorum. 

3.  Plural  names  of  festivals  in  alia :  BaccMndUa,  Saturnalia ;  which 
are  regularly  of  the  third  Decl.,  but  sometimes  form  the  Gen.  Plur.  in 
drum  of  the  second.  Anclle,  a  shield,  and  a  few  other  words  have  the  same 
peculiarity. 

137.  Of  Declensions  III.  and  V.  are 

1.  Bequies,  rest;  which  is  regularly  of  the  third  Decl.,  but  also  takes 
the  forms  requiem  and  requie  of  the  fifth. 

2.  Id^mes,  hunger;  regularly  of  the  third  Dec!.,  except  in  the  ablative, 
/am^,  of  the  fifth  (not  fame,  of  the  third). 

1 38.  Forms  in  ia  and  ies. — Many  words  of  four  syllables  have  one 
form  in  ia  of  Decl.  I.,  and  one  in  ics  of  Decl.  Y. :  luxuria,  luxuries,  lux- 
ury ;  materia,  materies,  material. 

139.  Forms  in  us  and  um. — Many  nouns  derived  from  verbs  have 
one  form  in  tis  of  Decl.  IV.,  and  one  in  um  of  Decl.  II. :  conStus,  condium, 
an  attempt ;  evenius,  eventum,  event. 

140.  Many  words  which  have  but  one  approved  form  in  prose,  admit 
another  in  poetry :  juventus  (utis),  youth ;  poetic,  juventa  (ae) :  s^nectus 
(utis),  old  age;  poetic,  s^necta  (ae):  pauperiOs  (atis),  poverty;  poetic, 
paup^ries  (ei). 

IV.  Heteeogeneous  Nouns. 

141.  Masculine  and  Neutee. — Some  masculines  take  in  the 
plural  an  additional  form  of  the  neuter  gender : 

Jocu^,  m. ,  jest ;         plural  Joci^  m. ,  Joca,  n. 

Z^<;m«,  m.,  place ;         "  ^m,  m.,  topics,  ^(?<?a,  n.,  places. 


ADJECTIVES.  45 

142.  Femixine  and  Neuter. — Some  feminines  take  in  tlie 
plural  an  additional  form  of  the  neuter  gender : 

Carbaiu^,  f.^  linen ;  plural  carhady  f.,  carbasa^  n. 

i/ar^ari7a,  f.,  pearl;  "     margantaf^t^margarita^n. 

OstreOy  f.j  oyhtcT ;  "     ostreae,  f.^  ostrea,  n. 

143.  Neuter  and  Masculine  or  Feminine. — Some  neuters 
take  in  the  plural  a  different  gender.     Thus : 

1.  Some  neuters  become  masculine  in  the  plural : 
Caelum,  n.,  heaven ;  plural  caeli,  m. 

2.  Some  neuters  generally  become  m^asculine  in  the  plural,  but  some- 
times remain  neuter  : 

Frenum,  n.,  bridle ;  plural  freni^  ra.^/rena,  n. 

Bastrum,  n.,  rake ;  "       rastri,  m.,  rostra^  n. 

3.  Some  neuters  hecome  feminine  in  the  plural: 
Bpiilum,  n.,  feast ;  plural  epulae,  f. 

1 44.  Forms  in  us  and  um. — Some  nouns  of  the  second  declension 
have  one  form  in  us  masculine,  and  one  in  um  neuter :  cItpeuSj  cltpeumy 
shield ;  commentarius,  commentarium^  commentary. 

145.  Heterogeneous  Heteroclites. — Some  heteroclites  are  also 
heterogeneous :  cOndtus  (us),  condtum  (i),  effort ;  menda  (ae),  mcndum  (i), 
fault 


CHAPTER    II. 

ADJECTIVES. 

146.  The  adjective  is  that  part  of  speech  which  is  used 
to  qualify  nouns  :  bonus,  good  :  magnus,  great. 

The  form  of  the  adjective  in  Latin  depends  in  part  upon  the  gender  of 
the  noxm  which  it  qualifies :  bonus  puer,  a  good  boy ;  bona  puella,  a  good 
girl ;  bonum  tectum,  a  good  house.  Thus  bonus  is  the  form  of  the  adjective 
■when  used  with  masculine  noxms,  bona  with  feminine,  and  bonum  with 
neuter. 

147.  Some  adjectives  are  partly  of  the  first  declension 
and  partly  of  the  second,  while  all  the  rest  are  entirely  of 
the  third  declension. 


46 


ADJECTIVES. 


First  axd  Second  Declensions  :  A  and  O  Stems. 
148.  Bonus,  good. 


SINGULAR. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

boniis 

bona 

bonikm 

Gen. 

boni 

bonae 

bonI 

Dat. 

bono 

bonae 

bono 

Ace. 

boniiiu 

bonftm 

bonfim 

Voc. 

bon« 

bon& 

bonilm 

AM. 

bono 

bona. 
PLuraL. 

bon5; 

JSfom. 

bonI 

bonae 

bona. 

Gen. 

bondrikm 

bonarikin 

bonorttm 

Dat. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

Ace. 

bonds 

bonas 

bona 

Voc. 

bonI 

bonae 

bona 

AM. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis. 

1.  Bonus  is  declined  in  the  Masc.  like  servus  of  Decl.  II.  (51),  ih  tho 
Fem.  like  mensa  of  Decl.  I.  (48),  and  in  the  Neut.  like  templum  of  Decl.  II. 
(51).    The  stems  are  bono  in  the  Masc.  and  Neut.,  and  bona  in  the  Fem. 


149.  Liber, /^-ee. 


SINGULAR, 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

liber 

libera 

llberiim 

Gen. 

liberl 

liberae 

liberl 

Dat. 

liberO 

liberac 

libSro 

Ace. 

liberttm 

liberam 

liberiim 

Voe. 

liber 

libera 

liberikm 

AM. 

liburO 

libera 

PLURAL. 

liberO ; 

Nom. 

liberi 

liberae 

libera 

Gen. 

liberoriiin 

liberariim 

liberdriim 

Dat. 

liberls 

liberls 

liberls 

Ace. 

liberOs 

lib^ras 

libera 

Voc. 

libgrl 

libgra^ 

libera 

AM. 

liberls 

Kberls 

liberls. 

ADJECTIVES. 


47 


1.  LiBEK  is  declined  in  the  Masc.  like  puer  (51),  and  in  the  Fern,  and 
Neut.  like  }>6nu9. 


Masc. 

Nom.  aeger 

Gen.  aegrl 

Dat.  aegro 

Ace.  aegriki 

Voc.  aeger 

Ahl.  aegrO 


150.  Aegor,  sick. 


singular. 
Fem. 
aegrii 
aegrac 
aegrao 
aegriim 
aegrfi, 
aegra 


Neut. 

aegrttm. 

aegrl 

aegrd 

acgriknt 

acgrikiu 

aeOT©; 


Nom.  aegrl 

Gen.  aegr5rd.in 

Dat.  aegrls 

Ace.  aegrOs 

Voc.  aegrl 

Ahl.  aegrls 


aegrae 

aegrariim 

aegrls 

aegi-as 

aegrae 

aegrls 


acgra 

acgrOrilm 

aegrls 

aegra 

aegra 

aegrls. 


1.  Aeger  is  declined  in  the  Masc.  like  ager  (51)  and  m  the  Fem.  and 
Neut.  like  honvs. 

2.  Most  adjectives  in  er  are  declined  like  aeger^  hut  the  following  m  er 
and  ur  are  declined  like  liber  : 

1)  Asper^  rough;  lacer^  torn;  miser,  wretched;  prosper,  prosperous; 
tcner,  tender ;  but  asper  sometimes  drops  the  e,  and  dexter,  right,  sometimes 
retains  it :  dexter,  dextera  or  dextra. 

2)  Satur,  sated ;  satur,  satura,  saturum. 

3)  Compounds  mfer  and  ger  :  mortifer,  deadly ;  dliger,  winged. 

151.  Irregitlakities. — These  nine  adjectives  have  in 
the  singular  ius  in  the  genitive  and  i  in  the  dative  : 

Alius,  a,  lid,  another;  nvllus,  a,  urn,  no  one;  sdltcs,  alone;  tottis^ 
whole ;  ullus,  any ;  untis,  one ;  aliSr,  -t^rd,  -tSrum,  the  other ;  ^ter,  -tra, 
-{rum,  which  (of  two) ;  neuter,  -tra,  -trum,  neither.' 

1.  The  Regular  Forms  occasionally  occur  in  some  of  these  adjectives. 

2.  /in  ius  is  sometimes  short;  generally  so  in  alterius. 

3.  Alius  contracts  the  genitive  aliius  into  alius. 

4.  Like  uter  are  declined  its  compounds :  vierque,  utervis,  uterlibU,  uter- 
eunque.  In  alteruter  sometimes  both  parts  are  declined,  as  alterius  utrlus  / 
and  sometimes  only  the  latter,  as  alterutrlus. 


Yat  the  Declension  In  full  soc  ff«K»,  175. 


48 


ADJECTIVES. 


Third  Declexsiox  :  Consoxant  and  I  Stems. 

152.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes  : 

I.  Those  which  have  in  the  nominative  singular  three 
different  forms — one  for  each  gender. 

II.  Those  which  have  two  forms — ^the  masculine   and 
feminine  being  the  same. 

III.  Those  which  have  but  one  form — the  same  for  all 
genders. 

153.  Adjectives  of  Three  Endings  in  this  declen- 
sion have  the  stem  in  i,  and  are  declined  as  follows  ; 


Acer,  sharjy. 

SINGULAR. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

K  acer 

acris 

acre 

G.  acrXs 

acrXs 

acrls 

D.  acrl 

acrl 

acrl 

A.  acr^m 

acr^ni 

acre 

V.  acer 

acrXs 

acre 

A.  acil 

acrl 

PLURAL. 

acrl; 

N.  acres 

acrCs 

acri& 

G.  acriiim 

acriikni 

acriiim 

D.  acrlbits 

acribiis 

acribiis 

A.  acrSs,  Is 

acres.  Is 

acri& 

V.  acres 

acrCs 

acriS, 

A.  acribiis 

acrXbits 

acribiis. 

1.  Like  Acer  are  declined : 

1)  Aldcer,  lively  •,  campester,  level;  celeher,  famous;  celer^^  swift;  egues- 
ter^  equestrian ;  paluster^  marshy ;  pedester,  pedestrian ;  puter^  putrid ;  talu' 
her,  healthful ;  silvester^  woody ;  terrester^  terrestrial ;  volucer,  winged. 

2)  Adjectives  in  er  designating  the  months :   October,  Irls.^ 

2.  The  Masculine  in  is,  like  the  Fem.,  also  occurs:  salubris,  sihestris, 
for  saluber,  Silvester. 


»  This  retains  e in  declension:  cder^  celeris,  celere;  and  has  um  in  the  Gen.  Plur. 
3  See  also  77,  II.  2. 


ADJECnTES. 


49 


8.  These  forms  in  er  are  analogous  to  those  in  er  of  Dec.  II.  in  dropping 
the  ending  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  and  in  inserting  e  before  r  :  deer  for 
acris^  stem,  dcri. 

4.  AcEB  is  declined  like  ignit  in  the  Masc.  and  Fem.,  and  like  rriare  (63) 
ill  the  Neut.,  except  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing.,  Masc.  where  it  ends  in  <r, 
and  in  the  Abl.  Sing,  where  it  ends  in  i. 

154.  Adjectives   of  Two   Endes^gs  are   declined   as 
follows  : 


Tristis, 

sad. 

Tristior,  more  sad. 

SISOULAK. 

1 

».  and  F. 

NEUT. 

M.  and  r. 

NEUT. 

N. 

tristis 

trist* 

K  tristior 

tristius 

G. 

tristis 

tristis 

O.  tristioris 

tristioris 

D. 

tristi 

tristi 

D.  tristiorl 

tristiOrl 

A. 

trist^m 

trist* 

A.  tristiSr^m 

tristius 

V. 

tristis 

trist* 

V.  tristiSr 

tristius 

A. 

tristi 

tristi ; 

A.  tristior*  (I) 

PLURAL. 

tristiOrC  (I) ; 

K 

tristCs 

tristift 

JV.  tristiorCs 

tristiorft 

G. 

tristi&m 

tristiiim 

G.  tristiorikm 

tristiorikm 

D. 

tristibAs 

tristibiis 

2).  tristioribiis 

tristioribiis 

A. 

tristCs,  Is 

tristia 

A.  tristiorCs 

tristiora 

V. 

tristCs 

tristi^ 

V.  tristiorCs 

tristiora 

A.  tristibiis      tristibiis. 


A.  tristioribiis       tristioribiis. 


1.  Tristis  and  Triste  are  declined  like  dcris  and  dcre. 

2.  Tristior  is  the  comparative  (160)  oitrUtis. 

8.  Stems. — The  stem  of  tristis  is  tristi ;  that  of  tristior  was  originally 
tristios^  but  it  has  been  modified  to  tristius  (61,  1)  in  the  Nom.,  Ace,  and 
Voc.  Sing.  Neut.,  and  to  tristior  in  the  other  cases  (35). 

4.  Like  tristior,  comparatives,  as  consonant  stems,  generally  have  the 
Abl.  Sing,  in  c,  sometimes  in  t,  the  Nom.  Plur.  Neut.  in  a,  and  the  Gen. 
Plur.  in  um.    But 

5.  CoMPLUREs,  several,  has  Gen.  Plur.  complurium ;  Nom.,  Ace,  and 
Voc.  Plur.  Neut.  complura  or  compluria.    See  Plus,  165,  1. 

6.  ^Vblative  in  e. — In  poetry,  adjectives  in  w,  ^,  sometimes  have  the  Abl. 
Sing,  in  «  /  cognomine  from  cognommis^  of  the  same  name. 

1 55.  Adjectives  of  One  Ending  generally  end  in  s 
or  ic,  sometimes  in  I  or  r,  and  are  declined  in  the  main  Uko 
nouns  of  the  same  endings. 


60 

ADJECnYES. 

156.  Audax,  audacious,                    Felix,  happy. 

SINGULAR. 

M.  and  F. 

NEUT. 

M.  and  \\ 

NEUT. 

N.  audax 

audax 

N.  felix 

fglix 

G.  audacXs 

audacXs 

G.  fellcis 

felicXs 

D.  audaci 

audaci 

D.  felici 

fellcl 

A.  audac^m 

audax 

A.  fellc^m 

felix 

V.  audax 

audax 

V.  felix 

felix 

A.  audaci  («) 

audaci  («) ; 

A.  fellcl  (^) 

PLURAL. 

fellcl  («); 

N.  audacCs 

audacia 

iV.  ffellcCs 

felicift 

Q.  audaciilm 

audaciiim 

G.  feliciiim 

felicitiiii 

B.  audacitoiis 

audacibits 

Z>.  felicXbiis 

felicibils 

A.  audac€s(ls 

)  audacia 

^.  felic€s  (Is) 

felicia 

F.  audaces 

audaciii 

V.  fellc€s 

felicift 

A.  audaeibtis 

audacibit^^. 

^.  feliclbiis 

felicXbiis. 

1.  Stems. — Most  Adjectives  of  One  Ending  are  combinations  of  i-stems 
and  consonant  stems — the  former  appearing  in  the  Abl.  Sing,  and  in  th« 
Plural.     The  stems  of  audax  and  felix  are  audcicij  audctc,  and  felxd^  fcVic. 


157.  Amans,  lomng. 


Prudens,  prudent. 


M.  and  F. 
N.  amans 
G.  amantXs 
D.  amanti 
A.  amant^m 
V,  amans 
A.  amanti^  (I) 


NEUT. 

Smans 

amantXs 

amanti 

amans 

amans 

amanti  (l) 


SINGULAR. 

M.  and  P. 

N.  prudens 
G.  prudentXs 
jD.  prudenti 
A.  prudent^m 
Y.  prudens 


NEUT. 

prudens 

prudentXs 

prudenti 

prudens 

prudens 


N.  amantCs  amantift 

G.  amantiiim      amantitkm 
D.  amantXb&s     amantXbils 
A.  amant€s(Is)  amantift 
V.  amant€s  amantift 

A.  amantXbiis     amantXbiis. 


A.  prudenti  {^)  prudenti  (^) ; 

PLURAL. 

N,  prudentCs  prudentiA 

G.  prudentiiim  prudentiiim 

D.  prudentXbils  prudentXbits 

A.  prudentes  (is)  prudentift 

Y,  prudentes  prudentift 

A.  prudentXbiis  prudentXbtts. 


1.  The  stems  are  Umanti,  Smant ;  prudenti,  prUdmt. 

2.  The  participle  dmans  differs  in  declension  from  the  adjective  pru- 
dens only  in  the  Abl.  Sing.,  where  the  participle  usually  has  the  ending  S, 
and  the  adjectire,  I.  Participles  used  adjectively  may  of  course  take  i. 
A  few  adjectives  have  only  e  in  general  use; — {\) pauper, paup^re,  poor; 


ADJECTIVES. 


51 


ptlbes,  pubffre,  mature ; — (2)  those  in  Ss,  G.  itis  or  idis :  dies,  descs,  dives^ 
tospes,  superstcs  ; — (3)  caelebs,  compHs,  impds,  princeps. 


158.  VStus,  old. 


M^mor,  mindful. 


SIXGULAR. 

M.  and  F. 

NEUT. 

M.  and  F.                  NEUT. 

N. 

TgtUS 

vetus 

memor                    m^mor 

0. 

vetSris 

veterXs 

memoris                memorial 

D. 

veterl 

vctgri 

memorl                  raemSrI 

A. 

veter^m 

vetiis 

memor^m             memor 

V. 

vetus 

vetus 

memor                   memSr 

A. 

veter«  (I) 

veterl  (I) ; 

mem5rl                 mcm8rl ; 

PLUKAL. 

X. 

vetcrCs 

veterft 

memorCs 

0. 

veterikm 

veterikm 

mem5riliii 

D. 

veterXblis 

veteribits 

memorXbiis 

A. 

veter€s 

veterft 

memorCs 

V. 

vctorCs 

Vetera 

memorCs 

A. 

veteribits 

veteribiis. 

memorXbiis. 

1.  Neuter  Plural. — Many  adjectives  like  m^mSr,  from  the  nature  of 
their  signification,  want  the  Neut.  Plur. :  ub^r,  fertile,  has  ubifra,  like  vStus^ 
Vetera  ;  all  others  have  the  ending  ia,  as  ftllcia,  prudentia. 

2.  Genitive  Plural. — Most  adjectives  have  ium,  but  the  following 
have  xim. 

1 )  Adjectives  of  one  ending  with  only  e  in  the  ablative  singular  (1 67, 2) : 
pauper,  paup^nim. 

2)  Those  with  the  genitive  in  Sris,  bris,  uris :  vSius,  vetSrum,  old ; 
m^mor,  memdrum^  mindful ;  cicur,  cicurnm,  tame. 

3)  Those  in  ceps :  anceps,  ancSpiturriy  doubtful. 

4)  Those  compounded  with  substantives  which  have  um :  tnops  (ops, 
opum),  in5pum,  helpless. 

IRREGULAR  ADJECTIVES. 

1 59.  Irregular  adjectives  may  be 

I.  Indeclinable  :  frftffl,  frugal,  good ;  nSquUm,  worthless ;  millify 
thousand.     See  176. 

II.  Defective  :  (cetgrus)  cltSra,  cciencm,  the  other,  the  rest ;  (ludlcer) 
ludicra,  ludicrum,  sportive ;  (sons)  sontis,  guilty ;  (sSminex)  slmXnScis, 
half  dead  ;  pauci,  ae,  a,  used  only  in  the  Plur.     See  also  158,  1. 

III.  Heteroclites. — Many  adjectives  have  two  distinct  forms,  one  in 
t«,  a,  wm,  of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  and  one  in  is  and  e  of  the 
third :  hXlSrua  and  hxliiris,  joyful ;  ex&nXmus  and  cx&vXmis,  lifeless. 


62  ADJECTIVES. 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

160.  Adjectives  have  three  forms,  called  the  Positive, 
the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative  degree  :  altiis,  altior, 
altissimijLS^  liiglij  higher,  highest.  These  forms  denote 
different  degrees  of  the  quality  expressed  by  the  adjective. 

161.  The  Latin,  like  the  English,  has  two  modes  of 
comparison  : 

I.  Terminational  Compakison — ^by  endings. 

II.  Adverbial  Comparisox — by  adverbs. 

I.    Terminational    Comparison. 

162.  Adjectives  are  regularly  compared  by  adding  to 
the  stem  of  the  positive  the  endings  : 

Comparative.  .     Superlative. 

M.  F.  N.  M.  F.  N. 

idr,  idr,  ius.  issimus,  issimS,  issimum:' 

Altus,  altior,  altissimus  :  high^  higher,  highest, 
ISvis,  levior,  levissimus  :  light,  lighter,  lightest 

1.  Vowel  Stems  lose  their  final  vowel :  aUo^  altior^  altissimus. 

1 63.  Irregular  Superlatives. — Many  adjectives  with 
regular  comparatives  have  irregular  superlatives.     Thus  : 

1.  Adjectives  in  er  add  rimus  to  the  positive  :  *  deer, 
acrior,  acernmus,  sharp. 

VStus  has  vcterrimus  ;  maturus,  both  maturnrmis  and  maturissimus  ; 
dexter,  dextxmus. 

2.  Six  in  ills  add  limus  to  the  stem  : ' 

Facilis,     difFicilis ;     easy,  difficult. 
simtlis,     dissimYlis ;  like,  unlike. 
gracilis,    humilis ;      slender,  low : 

facUis,  facilior,  facillimus.     Imhecillis  has  imhecilltmus. 

1  The  superlative  ending'  is-slmus  is  probably  compounded  of  is  for  ios,  the  original 
comparative  ending  (154,  8),  and  simus  for  fimus;  io8-tlmus=ios-slmu8=i8-^mu8. 
After  I  and  r,  the  first  element  is  omitted,  and  s  assimilated :  fdcUis,  facil-shnus, 
facillimus;  deer,  acer-e'im-us,  acer-rimm. 


ADJECTIVES.  53 

3.  Four  in  rus  have  two  irregular  superlatives  : 

Exterus,  exterior,  extrSmus    and  exttmus,  outward. 

inferus,  inferior,  iuflmus      and  Imus,  lower. 

siiperus,  superior,  supr6mus   and  summus,  ujjper. 

posterns,  posterior,  postrgmus  amf  postiimus,  next. 

1 64.  Compounds  in  dicus,  fitcus,  and  vblus  are  compared  with  the 
•ndings  entior  and  entissimus,  as  if  from  forms  in  ens  : 

Miledicus,     maledicentior,     maledicentissimus,     slanderous. 
munificus,     munilicentior,     munificentissimus,     liberal. 
benevolus,    benevolentior,     benevolentissimus,    benevolent. 

1.  Egenus  aadprovidus  (needy  and  prudent),  form  the  comparative  and 
superlative  from  egens  and providens:  hence  egentior^  egentissimus^  etc. 

2.  Mirifkissimus  occurs  as  the  superlative  oi  mirificus^  wonderful. 

165.  Special  Irregularities  of  Comparison. 


Bonus, 

melior, 

optimus. 

good. 

maius, 

pejor, 

pesslmus. 

bad. 

magnus, 

major, 

maxlmus. 

great. 

parvus, 

minor, 

mtnimus. 

small. 

multus, 

plus, 

plurimus. 

much. 

1.  Mus  13  neuter,  and  has  in  the  singular  only  N.  and  A.  plus,  and  G. 
pluris.  In  the  plural  it  has  N.  and  A.  plures  (m.  and  f.),  plura,  (n.),  G. 
plurium,  D.  and  A.  pluriJnis. 

^   ^  j  divitior,  divitisslmus,  )    .  , 

^  ^  I  ditior,  ditisslmus,       f 

frugl,  frugSlior,  frugalisstmus,  frugal. 

nSqu&m,        nequior,  nequissimus,    worthless. 

166.  POSITITK   WANTINQ. 

Clfterior,  citimus,  nearer. 

detSrior,  deterrimus,  worse. 

interior,  inttmus,  inner. 

6cior,  ocisslmus,  swifter. 

167.  Comparative  wanting. 

1.  In  a  few  participles  used  adjcctively:  m^rttus,  meritisstmus^  de- 
serving. 

2.  In  these  adjectives  ; 

*  These  adjectives  are  formed  from  cltrd,  di,  inird,  GrMk  «>cvy,  pra«  or  prc^ 
pr6pf,  ultrd. 


prior,  prTmus,  former. 
propior,  proxJmus,  nearer. 
ultSrior,     ultlmus,         farther."^ 


64  ADJECTIVES. 


Diversus,  diversissJmus,   different,    j   novus,     uovisslmus,       new. 

sScer,      sacerrimus,       sacred. 
vetus,      veterrimus,        old. 


falsus,       falsissimus.       false. 
incliitus,  inclutissiraus,    renowned. 
invltus,     invitissimus,      unwilling. 

168.  Superlative  wanting. 

1.  In  most  verbals  in  iQis  and  bilis:  donlis^  docilior,  docile. 

2.  In  many  adjectives  in  alls  and  ills  :  c&pitalis,  capitalior,  capital. 

3.  In  alacer,  alacrior,  active ;  caecus,  blind ;  diuturnus,  lasting ;  longin. 
quus,  distant ;  oplmus,  rich ;  proclivis,  steep  ;  prdpinquus,  near  ;  salutaris, 
salutary,  and  a  few  others. 

4.  Three  adjectives  supply  the  superlative  thus : 

Adolescens,       Sdolescentior,        mJnimus  nStu,^        young. 
juvenis,  junior,  mMmus  nStu,         }/oimg. 

senex,  senior,  maxlmus  natu,        old. 

169.  Without  Terminational  Comparison. 

1.  Many  adjectives,  from  the  nature  of  their  signification,  especially  such 
as  denote  material,  possessio?i,  or  the  relations  of  place  and  time  :  aureus, 
golden ;  paternus,  paternal ;  Eomdnus,  Eoman ;  aestivus,  of  summer. 

2.  Most  adjectives  in  us  preceded  hy  a  vowel,  except  those  in  quus: 
idoneus,  suitable ;  noxius,  hurtful. 

3.  Many  derivatives  in  dlis,  dris,  ilis,  ulus,  tcus,  inns,  orus :  mortdlis 
(mors),  mortal. 

4.  Albus,  white ;  claudus,  lame ;  /eras,  wild ;  lassus,  weary ;  mirus,  won- 
derful, and  a  few  others. 

II.    Adverbial    Comparison. 

170.  Adjectives  whicli  want  tlie  terminational  comparison, 
form  tlie  comparative  and  superlative,  when  their  signification  re- 
quires it,  by  prefixing  the  adverbs  mdgis,  more,  and  maxime,  most, 
to  the  positive :  arduus,  magis  arduus,  maxime  arduus,  arduous. 

1.  Other  adverbs  are  sometimes  used  with  the  positive  to  denote  differ- 
ent degrees  of  the  quality  :  adrrwdum,  vald^,  oppido,  very ;  imprimis,  ap~ 
prim?,  in  the  highest  degree :  valde  magna,  very  great.  Fer  and  prae  in 
composition  with  adjectives  have  the  force  of  'very  ;  perdifficilis,  very  difii- 
cult ;  praecldrus,  very  illustrious. 

2.  Strengthening  Particles  are  also  sometimes  used, — (1)  With  the  com- 
parative :  etiam,  even,  multo,  longe,  much,  far :  etiam  dlligentior,  even  more 
diligent;  multo  diUgentior,Ta\iQh  more  diligent, — (2)  With  the  superlative: 
multo,  longe,  much,  by  far ;  quam,  as  possible :  multo  or  longe  diligentissi-' 
mus,  by  far  the  most  diligent ;  quam  diligentissimus,  as  diligent  as  possible. 

'  Smallest  or  youngest  in  age.    Xatu  is  sometimes  omitted. 


TABLE    OF    NUMERAL    ADJECTIVES. 


65 


Numerals. 

171.  Numerals   comprise   numeral  adjectives  and  nu- 
meral adverbs. 

172.  Numeral    adjectives     comprise    three    principal 
classes  : 

1.  Cardinal  Numbers  :  unus,  one  ;  dud,  two. 

2.  Ordinal  Numbers  :  primus,  first ;  s^eundus,  second. 

3.  Distributives  :  singiiU,  one  by  one  ;  Vint,  two  by 
two,  two  each,  two  apiece. 

1 73.  To  these  may  be  added : 

1.  McLTiPLiCATivES. — These  are  adjectives  in  pleZy  G.  pttcis,  denoting 
80  many  fold :  simplex^  single ;  duplex,  double ;  triplex,  threefold. 

2.  Proportionals. — These  are   declined  like   hHiius,  and   denote  so 
many  times  as  gi'eat :  duplm,  twice  as  great ;  inplus,  three  times  as  great. 

174.  Table  of  Numeral  Adjectives. 

Ordinals. 
primus,^  Jirsf, 
secmidus,'  second, 
tertius,  third, 
quartus,  fourth, 
quintus,  ffth, 
seitus, 
Septimus, 
octavus, 
nOnus, 
decimus, 
undeclmus, 
du5declmus, 
tertius  decimus,^ 
quartus  decimus, 
quintus  decimus, 
sextus  decimus. 


Cardinals. 

1.  Gnus,  una,  unum, 

2.  duo,  duae,  duo, 

3.  trgs,  triS, 

4.  quattuor, 

5.  quinquJ?, 

6.  sex, 
V.  septSm, 

8.  oct5, 

9.  n5v6m, 

10.  decern, 

11.  undeclm, 

12.  duodeclm, 

13.  tredecim,' 

14.  quattuordScIm, 

15.  quindeclm, 

16.  seduclm  or  sexd5- 

clm,' 

17.  septendeclm,' 


Septimus  decimus, 


Distributives. 
singuli,  one  by  one. 
bini,  two  by  two. 
terni  (trlni). 
quStemL 
qulni. 
seiii. 
septgni. 
octoni. 
novenl 
deni. 
undgni. 
du5deni. 
temi  deni. 
quiterni  deni. 
qulni  d6ni. 
sCni  deni. 


septeni  dgni. 


»  Boraetimcs  with  the  parts  separated :  decern  et  tres  ;  decern  et  sex,  etc. 

•  Prior  is  used  instead  of  primus  in  speaking  of  two,  and  alter  is  often  used  for 
eecundua. 

*  Sometimes  dec^mui  precedes  ^^'ith  or  without  et :  dechmu  et  tertius  or  dec\mu4 
tcrtiut. 


TABLE    OF   XUilEKAL   ADJECTIVES. 


22. 


Cardinals. 

18.  duodevlgintl,' 

19.  undevigintl,^ 

20.  vlginti, 
2  J  jviginti  unus, 

*  (unus  et  viginti,* 
jviginti  duo, 
^duo  et  viginti, 
30.  tnginta, 
40.  quadraginta, 
50.  quinquilginta, 
60.  sexagiuta, 
70.  septuaginta, 
80.  octoginta, 
90.  nonaginta, 
100.  centum, 

(centum  unus, 
(centum  et  unus,^ 
200.  diicentl,  ae,  S, 
300.  trecenti, 
400.  quSdringenti, 
500.  quingenti, 
600.  sexcenti, 
700.  septingenti, 
800.  octingenti, 
900.  nongenti, 
1,000.  mille, 
2,000.  duomillia,* 
10,000.  decern  millia, 


101. 


Ordinals. 
duudevlcSsimus,' 
undevlcesimus,^ 
vicesimus,® 
vicesimus  primus, 
unus  et  vicesimus', 
vicesimus  secundus, 
alter  et  vicesimus, 
tricesimus,^ 
quSdragesimus, 
quinquagesimus, 
sexagesimus, 
septuagesimus, 
octogesimus, 
nonagesimus, 
centesimus, 
centesimus  primus, 
centesimus  et  primus 
ducentesimus, 
trecentesimus, 
quadringentesimus, 
quingentesimus, 
sexcentesimus, 
septingentesimus, 
octingentesimus, 
nongentesimus, 
millesimus, 
bis  millesimus, 
decies  millesimus, 


DiSTEIBUTIVEB. 

duSdevIceni. 

undeviceni. 

viceni. 

viceni  singiili. 

singuli  et  viceni. 

viceni  bini. 

bini  et  viceni. 

tricSni. 

quadrageni. 

quinquageni. 

sexageni. 

septuageni. 

octogeni. 

nonageni. 

centeni. 

centeni  singuli. 

centeni  et  singuli. 

diiceni. 

treceni. 

quSdringeiii. 

quingSni. 

sexceni. 

septingeni. 

octingeni. 

nongeni. 

singula  millia. 

bina  millia. 

dena  millia. 


>  Literally  two  from  twenty,  one  from  twenty,  by  subtraction ;  but  these  number* 
may  be  expressed  by  addition :  decern  et  ocio  ;  decern  et  novem  ;  so  28,  29 ;  38,  89, 
etc.,  either  by  subtraction  from  trlgintd,  etc.,  or  by  addition  to  viginti;  duodetri- 
ginta  or  octo  et  viginti. 

2  If  the  tens  precede  the  units,  et  is  omitted,  otherwise  it  is  generally  used.  So 
in  English  cardinals,  twenty-one,  one  and  twenty. 

3  In  compounding  numbers  above  100,  units  generally  follow  tens,  tens  hundreds, 
etc.,  as  in  English ;  but  the  connective  et  is  either  omitted,  or  used  only  between 
the  two  highest  denominations:  mille  centum  viginti  or  miUe  et  centum  viginti, 
1120. 

*  Sometimes  hina  millia  or  bU  mille. 

*  Sometimes  expressed  by  addition,  like  the  corresponding  cardinals :  octavui 
de<A.mu8  and  nornis  declmus. 

*  Sometimea  written  with  g';  vigee\mu8  ;  trigeAmus. 


DECLENSION   OF   NUMERAL   ADJECTIVES. 


57 


Cabdinals. 
100,000.  centum  millia, 
1,000,000.  deciSs  centuna  mil- 
lia.J 


Ordinals. 
ccnties  milleslmus, 
decies    centies    mil- 
leslmus. 


DiSTBlBUTIVEB. 

centena  millia. 
dScies  centena  millia. 


1.  Ordinals  with  Pars^  part,  expressed  or  understood,  may  be  used  to 
express  fractions:  tertiapara^  a  third  part,  a  third;  quarta  pars^  a  fourth; 
duae  teriiae,  two  thirds. 

2.  Distributives  are  used 

1)  To  show  the  mimber  of  objects  taken  at  a  time,  often  best  rendered 
by  adduig  to  the  cardinal  each  or  apiece;  ternot  dendrios  accep'erunt^  they 
received  each  three  denarii,  or  three  apiece.    Hence  : 

2)  To  express  Multiplication  :  decies  centena  millia^  ten  times  a  hundred 
thousand,  a  million. 

3)  Instead  of  Cardinals^  with  nouns  plural  in  form,  but  singular  in 
sense :  hina  castra,  two  camps.  Here  for  dnguli  and  terni,  uni  and  trlni 
are  used :  unae  litterae^  one  letter ;  trlnae  lUterae,  three  letters. 

4)  Sometimes  in  reference  to  objects  spoken  of  in  pairs :  blni  scyphi^ 
a  pair  of  goblets ;  and  in  the  poets  with  the  force  of  cardinals :  blna  has- 
tiUa,  two  spears. 

3.  Poets  use  nmneral  adverbs  (181)  very  freely  in  compounding  num- 
bers :  bis  sex,  for  duodecim ;  bis  septem,  for  quattuordficim. 

4.  Sexcenti  and  mille  are  sometimes  used  indefinitely  for  any  large  num- 
ber, as  one  thousand  is  in  English. 


Declension    of    Numeral    Adjectives. 
176.  The  first  three  cardinals  are  declined  as  follows  ; 
Unus,  07ie. 


SIXGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

N.  unus 

una 

unum 

unl 

unae 

Una 

G.  unius 

unlus 

unlus 

unorum 

unSrum 

unOrum 

D.  unl 

unl 

unl 

unis 

unl3 

unis 

A.  unum 

unSm 

unum 

unos 

unfis 

una 

F.  unS 

uni 

uniim 

unl 

unae 

una 

A.  un5 

una 
Duo,  two. 

unO; 

unl3 

unl3 
Tres,  three 

unis. 

K  du5 

duae 

duu 

tres,  m. 

andf. 

tria,  n. 

0.  duOriim     duSrum 

duOriim' 

trium 

triiim 

»  Literally  ten  times  a  hundred  thousand ;  the  table  might  be  carried  up  to  any 
desired  number  by  using  the  proper  numeral  adverb  with  centena  millia :  centies 
centena  miUia,  10,000,000 ;  sometimes  in  such  combinations  centena  millia  is  under- 
stood and  only  the  adverb  is  expressed,  and  sometimes  centum  millia  is  use^. 

'  Dudrum  and  dudrwf  are  sometimes  shortened  to  duOm. 


58 


3 

NUMERALS. 

D. 

duObus      duabus 

duobiis 

tribus 

trjbiia 

A. 

duos,  duo  duas 

duo 

tres,  tris 

trU 

V. 

du5            duae 

du6 

tres 

trii 

A. 

duobiis      duabiis 

duobus. 

tribus 

tiibus. 

1.  The  plural  ofunus  in  the  sense  of  alone  may  be  used  with  any  noun ; 
uni  Ubii,  the  Ubii  alone ;  but  in  the  strict  numeral  sense  of  one,  it  is  used 
only  with  such  nouns  as,  though  plural  in  form,  are  singular  in  sense :  una 
castra,  one  camp ;  unae  litterae^  one  letter. 

2.  Like  duo  is  declined  anibo^  both. 

3.  Multi,  many,  and  plurimi^  very  many,  are  indefinite  numerals,  and 
as  such  generally  want  the  sing.  But  in  the  poets  the  sing,  occurs  in  the 
Bense  of  many  a :  muUa  hostia,  many  a  victim. 

176.  The  Cardinals  from  quattuor  to  centum  are  indeclinable. 

177.  Hundreds,  ducenti^  trecenti^  etc.,  are  declined  like  the 
plural  of  bonus :  ducenti^  ae^  a. 

178.  Mille  as  an  adjective  is  indeclinable:  as  a  substantive  it 
is  used  in  the  singular  only  in  the  nominative  and  accusative,  but 
in  the  plural  it  is  declined  like  the  plural  of  mare  (63) ;  millia,^ 
millium,  milllhus. 

With  the  substantive  Mille,  the  name  of  the  objects  enumerated  is  gen- 
erally in  the  genitive :  mille  hdminum,  a  thousand  men  (of  men) ;  but  it  is 
in  the  same  case  as  mille,  if  a  declined  numeral  intervenes :  tria  milUa 
trecenti  militet,  three  thousand  three  hundred  soldiers. 

1 79.  Ordinals  are  declined  like  bonus  and  distributives  like  the 
plural  of  bonus,  but  the  latter  often  have  um  for  drum  in  the 
genitive ;  binum  for  binorum. 

180.  Numeral  Symbols. 


ARABIC. 

B01L4.N. 

ARABIC. 

ROMAN. 

ARABIC. 

ROaiAW. 

1. 

I. 

9. 

IX. 

lY. 

XVII. 

2. 

II. 

10. 

X. 

18. 

xvm. 

8. 

III. 

11. 

XI. 

19. 

XIX. 

4. 

IV. 

12. 

XII. 

20. 

XX. 

6. 

V. 

13. 

XTTI. 

21. 

XXI. 

6. 

VI. 

14. 

XIV. 

22. 

XXII. 

7. 

VII. 

15. 

XV. 

30. 

XXX. 

8. 

VIII. 

16. 

XVI. 

40. 

XL. 

'  This  according  to  Corssen  is  the  proper  form,  thongh  the  word  is  often  written 
with  one  I :  milia. 


NUMERALS. 

5 

AKABIO. 

ROMAN. 

ABABIC.        BOMAN. 

AKABIO. 

ROMAN. 

60. 

L. 

200. 

CC. 

900. 

DCCCC 

60. 

LX. 

300. 

CCC. 

1,000. 

CIO,  or  M. 

70. 

LXX 

400. 

cccc. 

2,000. 

CIOCIO,  or  MM. 

80. 

LXXX. 

500. 

10,  or  D. 

10,000. 

CCIOO. 

90. 

xc. 

600. 

DC. 

100,000. 

CCCIOOO. 

100. 

c. 

700. 

DCC. 

1,000,000. 

CCCCIOOOO. 

LOl. 

CI. 

800. 

DCCC. 

59 


1.  Latin  Numeral  Symbols  are  combinations  of :  I  =  1 ;  V  =  5 ;  X  =  10 ; 
L  =  50 ;  C  =  100 ;  10  or  D  =  500 ;  CIO  or  M  =  1,000.^ 

2.  In  the  Combination  of  these  symbols,  except  10,  obsen'o 

1)  That  the  repetition  of  a  symbol  doubles  the  value :  II  =  2 ;  XX  = 
20 ;  CC  =  200. 

2)  That  any  sjTnbol  standing  before  one  of  greater  value,  subtracts  its 
own  value,  but  that  after  one  of  greater  value,  it  adds  its  own  value :  V  ■= 
5;  IV  =  4  (5-  1);  VI  =  6(5  +  1). 

3.  In  the  Combination  of  10  observe 

1)  That  each  0  (inverted  C)  after  10  increases  the  value  tenfold:  10 
=  500 ;  100  =  500  x  10  =?  5,000 ;  1000  =  5,000  x  10  =  50,000. 

2)  That  these  numbers  are  doubled  by  placing  C  the  same  number  of 
times  before  I  as  0  stands  after  it :  10  =  500 ;  CIO  =  500  x  2  =  1,000 ;  100 
=  5,000 ;  CCIOO  =  5,000  x  2  =  10,000. 

3)  That  smaller  symbols  standing  after  these  add  their  value:  10  = 
600 ;  IOC  =  600 ;  lOCC  ^  700. 

Numeral  Adverbs. 


181.  To  numerals  belong  also  numeral  abverbs. 
venience  of  reference  we  add  the  following  table : 


For  con- 


1. 

sSmSl,  once 

11.  undScies 

17.  septiesdecies 

2. 

Ms,  twice 

12.   duodScies 

jduodevlcies 
'  \  octiesdScies 

8. 

ter,  three  times 

fterdecies 
"^•(trgdecies 

4. 

quSter 

jundgvlcies 
■  ( noviesdgcies 

6. 

quinquies 

jquSterdecies 
■  \  quattuordecies 

6. 

sexies 

20.   vicies 

7. 

septies 

jquinquiesdScies 
■  ( quindecies 

21.   semel  et  vicies 

8. 

octiea 

22.  bis  et  vicies 

9. 

nSvies 

rsexiesdecies 
^^•Isedecies 

30.   tricies 

10. 

dScies 

40.   quSdrSgies 

1  Tboosands  are  Bometlmes  denoted  by  a  line  over  tbe  symbol:   II  s  2,000;  T 
^000. 


60 


PROXOUXS. 


50.  quinquSgies 

60.  sexSgies 

'70.  septuagies 

80.  octogies 

90.  nonagies 

100.  centies 

101.  centies  semel 


200.  diicenties 
300.  trecenties 
400.  quadringenties 
500.  quingenties 
600.  sexcenties 
'700.  septingenties 
800.  octingenties 


900.  nOningenties  ^ 

1,000.  millies' 

2,000.  bis  millies 

10,000.  decies  millies 

100,000.  centies  millies 

1,000,000.  milUes  miUies. 


1.  In  Compounds  of  units  and  tens,  the  imit  witli  et  generally  precedes, 
as  in  the  table :  Us  et  vicies  ;  the  tens,  however,  with  or  without  et  sometimes 
precede :  mcies  et  his  or  vicies  bis,  but  not  bis  vicies. 

2.  Another  Class  of  numeral  adverbs  in  um  or  d  is  formed  from  the 
ordinals :  primum,  prlmOy  for  the  first  time,  in  the  first  place ;  tertium^ 
tertio,  for  the  third  time. 


CHAPTER    III. 
PRONOUNS. 

1 82.  The  Pronoun  is  the  part  of  speech  which  sup- 
plies the  place  of  nouns  :   ^gd,  I ;  tu^  thou. 

183.  Pronouns  are  divided  into  six  classes  : 

1.  Personal  Pronouns  :  tu,  thou. 

2.  Possessive  Pronouns  :  9neus,  my. 

3.  Demonstrative  Pronouns  :  hic,  this. 

4.  Relative  Pronouns  :  qm,  who. 

5.  Interrogative  Pronouns  :  qms,  who  ? 

6.  Indefinite  Pronouns  ;  dliqids,  some  one. 

I.   Personal  Pronouns. 

1 84.  Personal  Pronouns,  so  called  because  they  desig- 
nate the  person  of  the  noun  which  they  represent,  are  : 


^  Also  written  nongenties. 

"  MUies  Is  often  used  Indefinitely  like  the  English  a  tJiousand  times. 


PRONOUNS. 

,^. 

Tu,  thou. 

SINGULAR. 

Sui, 

off 

N.  gg5 

tu 

G.  mel 

tul 

sul 

D.  mihi 

trb! 

stb! 

A.  m5 

te 

bS 

r. 

ta 

A.  me; 

tS; 

PLURAL. 

86; 

JV.  nOs 

vGs 

nostrum 
'  nostrl 

• 

vestriim 
vestri 

\ 

BUl 

D.  nobis 

vobis 

stb! 

-4.  nOs 

V68 

se 

r. 

vfis 

^.  n5bl8. 

vObls. 

86. 

61 


1.  Stems.— The  stems  in  the  Sing.'  are  me,  te,  se ;  in  the  Plur.  no,  vo,  se. 

2.  The  Case-Endixgs  of  Pronouns  differ  considerably  from  those  of  Nouns. 

3.  Genitive.— J/ei,  tui,  sui,  nostri,  and  vestri,  are  in  form  strictly  Pos- 
sessive Pronouns  and  are  in  the  Gen.  Sing.,  but  by  use  they  have  become 
Personal.  Nostri  and  vestri  have  also  become  Plural.  Nostrum  and  vestrum 
for  nostrorum  and  vestrorum  are  also  Possessives.  See  mens,  tuus,  suus, 
etc.,  185. 

4.  Substantive  Pronouns.— Personal  Pronouns  are  also  called  Substan- 
tive pronouns,  because  they  are  always  used  as  substantives. 

5.  Keflexive  Pronoun.— /S'wi,  from  its  reflexive  signification,  o/  himself^ 
etc.,  is  often  called  the  Reflexive  pronoun. 

6.  Emphatic  Forms  in  met  occur,  except  in  the  Gen.  Plur. :  egdmU,  I 
myself;  temet,  etc.    But  the  Nom.  tu  has  tute  and  tutemet,  for  tumet. 

7.  Eeduplicated  Forms  : —/Sese,  tW>,  nmrie,  for  se,  te,  me. 

8.  Ancient  and  Rare  Forms  -.—Mis  for  mei ;  tis  for  tui ;  ml  for  mihi ; 
mid,  and  mepte  for  me ;  ted  for  te ;  sed  for  se. 

9.  Cum,  when  used  with  the  ablative  of  a  Personal  Pronoun,  is  appended 
to  it :  mecum,  tecrnn. 

II.  Possessive  Pronouns. 

185.  From  Personal  pronouns  are  formed  the  Posses- 
sives : 


*  Of  himself,  TitTseJf,  itself.    The  Nom,  is  not  used. 

«  Except  in  the  Nom.     Tu  \%  related  to  <«,  but  ego  ie  an  entirely  independent  form. 


62 


PRONOUNS. 


metis,  §,,  iim,  wyy  noster,  tra,  triim,  our ; 

tuus,    a,  um,  thy^  your  ;    vester,  tra,  trum,  your  ^ 


suus,   a,  um,  A^s,  Aer,  its  ^  suus, 


um. 


their. 


1.  Possessives  are  declined  as  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declen- 
Bions ;  but  meus  has  in  the  Voc.  Sing.  Mase.  generally  mi,  sometimes  meus. 

2.  Emphatic  forms  in  pte  and  met  occur :  suapte,  sudmet. 

3.  Other  possessives  are :  (1)  cujus,  a,  um,^  whose,  and  cujus^  a,  wm,^ 
whose?  declined  like  honus^  and  (2)  the  Patrials,  nostras^  G.  d^is,  of  our 
country,  vestrds^  G.  dtis^  of  your  country,  and  cujds^  G.  d^w,  of  whose 
country,  declined  as  adjectives  of  Decl.  III. 


III.  Demonstbative  Pronouns. 

186.  Demonstrative  Pronouns,  so  called  because  they 
specify  the  objects  to  which  they  refer,  are 

JjTfc,  iste^  ille,  is,  ips^,  idem. 

They  are  declined  as  follows  : 

I.  Hie,  this. 


SINGULAR. 

PLUKAL. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  h!c 

haec 

h6c 

hi 

hae 

haec 

G.  hujus 

hujus 

hujus 

horum 

harum 

horum 

D.  huic 

huic 

huic 

his 

his 

his 

A.  hunc 

hanc 

h6c3 

hos 

has 

haec 

A.  hoc 

hac 

hoc; 

his        * 

his 

his. 

n. 

Iste,  that,  that 

of  yours. 

See  450. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  iste 

istS 

istud 

istl 

istae 

ista 

0.  istius 

istliis 

istius 

istOrfim 

istariim 

istorum 

V.  istl 

istl 

istl 

istis 

istis 

istis 

A.  istum 

istam 

istud  3 

istos 

istas 

ista 

A.  isto 

i9tft 

isto; 

istis 

istis 

istis. 

ni. 

nig,  he  or  ^Aa^, 

is  declined  like  ist^. 

1  From  the  relative  qwi,  cujus.    See  187. 

2  From  the  interrogative  quis^  cujus.    See  188. 

8  The  Vocative  is  wanting  in  Demonstrative,  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefr 
site  Pronouns. 


PRONOUNS. 

6 

IV.  Is,  he 

,  this,  that 

SINGULAR 

PLURAL. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N. 

IS 

ea 

Id 

el,  il 

eae 

ea 

G, 

ejus 

ejus 

ejiia 

eOrum 

earum 

eoriim 

D. 

el 

el 

el 

els,  il3 

eis,  ils 

eis,  iis 

A. 

eum 

eSm 

Id» 

eos 

eas 

ea 

A. 

60 

ea 

SINGULAS. 

60; 

V.  IpsS 

els,  ils 
,  self,  he. 

els,  ils 

PLURAL. 

eis,  iis. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N. 

ipsg 

ipsa 

ipsilm 

ipsi 

ipsae 

ipsa 

G. 

ipsius 

ipsius 

ipsius 

ipsOriim 

ipsarum 

ipsSrum 

D. 

ipsi 

ipsi 

ipsi 

ipsis 

ipsIs 

ipsis 

A. 

ipsum 

ipsSm 

ipsiim 

ipsos 

ipsas 

ipsa 

A. 

ipso 

ipsa 

SINGULAK. 

ipso; 
VI.  Idem 

ipsIs 
,  the  same. 

ipsIs 

PLURAL. 

ipsls. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

iV. 

Idem 

eSdem 

tdem 

(  eldem  2 
<  ildgm 

eaedem 

eadem 

G. 

ejusdSm 

ejusdem 

ejusdem 

eorundem 

earundem  eOrundSra 

D. 

cIdSm 

eldem 

eldem 

eisdem 
iisdem 

eisdem 
iisdem 

eisdem  ' 
iisdem 

A. 

eundSm 

eandgm 

idSm 

eosdem 

easdem 

eadem 

A. 

eodSm 

eadem 

eodSm ; 

i  eisdem 
(  iisdem 

eisdem 
iisdem 

eisdem* 
iisdem. 

1.  The  STEMS  are  as  follows : 

1)  Of  iiic — ho,  ha} 

2)  Of  ISTE  and  ille,  for  istus  and  illus — isto,  ista,  and  illo,  ilia. 
55)  Of  IS — t,  eo,  ca. 

4)  Of  ipse,  for  ips^is — ipso,  ipsa. 

5)  Idem,  compounded  of  is  and  dem,  is  declined  like  is,  but  shortens 
isdem  to  Ideni  and  iddem  to  idem,  and  changes  m  to  n  before  the  ending  dem. 


>  The  Vocative  is  wanting  in  Demonstrative,  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefi- 
nite Pronouns. 

2  Eldem  and  eiadem  are  the  approved  forms,  but  ildem  and  iisdem  are  retained  in 
many  editions.  Ildem,  and  iisdem.  are  in  poetry  dissyllables,  and  are  often  written  Idem 
and  isdem. 

'  By  tho  addition  of  <  in  certain  cases,  ho  and  lia  become  hi  and  Aa«,  as  in  hi-c  and 
ha€-c. 


64 


PRONOtTNS. 


2.  Hic,  for  hi-ce,  is  compounded  with  the  demonstrative  particle  cS, 
meaning  here.  The  forms  in  c  have  dropped  e,  while  the  other  forms  have 
dropped  the  particle  entirely.  But  ce  is  often  retained  for  emphasis; 
hice,  hujusce,  hosce,  horunce  {m  changed  to  n),  horunc  {e  dropped).  Oe, 
changed  to  ci,  is  generally  retained  before  the  interrogative  ne :  hlcine, 
hoscine. 

3.  Illic  and  Istic. — The  particle  ce,  generally  shortened  to  c,  except 
after  s,  is  sometimes  appended  to  ille  and  iste :  illlc  for  ille^  illaec  for  illa^ 
Hide  or  illuc  for  illud,  illiusce^  etc. 

4.  Ancient  and  Eake  Forms: 

1)  Of  Hic  :  hisce  for  hice,  hi  ;  Tiaec  for  hae. 

2)  Of  IsTE  and  ille  :  forms  in  t,  ae,  I  for  lus  and  I  m  the  Gen.  and  Dat. : 
illi  for  illius,  istae  for  istius  or  isti ;  also  forms  from  oUus  for  ille :  oUl, 
olla,  olios,  etc. 

3)  Of  Is:  el,^  eae,  ei,i  Dat.  for  el;  ibus,  edbits,  ibus,  for  eis. 

4)  Of  Ipse,  compounded  of  is  and  pse  (is-pse  =  ipse) ;  the  uncontracted 
forms :  Ace.  eumpse,  eampse,  Abl.  eopse,  eapse ;  with  re :  re  eapse,  reapse  for 
re  ipsa,  in  reality;  also  ipsus,  a,  um,  etc.,  for  ipse,  a,  um. 

5)  Syncopated  forms,  compounded  o^  ecce  or  en,  lo,  see,  and  some  cases 
of  demonstratives,  especially  the  Acq.,  of  ille  and  is ;  eecum  for  ecce  eum ; 
eccos  for  ecce  eos ;  ellum  for  en  ilium ;  ellam  for  en  illam. 

5.  Demonstrative  Adjectives  :  talis,  e,  such ;  tantus,  a,  um,  so  great ; 
tot,  so  many ;  totus,  a,  um,  so  great.     Tot  is  indeclinable ;  the  rest  regular. 

For  talis,  the  Gen.  of  a  demonstrative  with  modi  (Gen.  of  modus,  meas- 
ure, kind),  is  often  used :  hujusmodi,  ejusmodi,  of  this  kind,  such. 


IV.   Relative  Pronouns. 

187.  The  Relative  qui,  who,  so  called  because  it  relates 
to  some  noun  or  pronoun,  expressed  or  understood,  called 
its  antecedent,  is  declined  as  follows  : 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

K  qui 

quae 

quod 

qui 

quae 

quae 

O.  cujus 

cujiis 

cujiis 

quorum 

quarum 

quoriim 

D.  CUT 

CUT 

cul 

qulfbus 

quibiis 

quibiis 

A.  quSm 

quSm 

quSd^ 

quos 

quas 

quae 

A.  qu5 

qua 

quo; 

quibiis 

quibiis 

quibus. 

1.  Stems. 

—The  stem 

is  quo,  gua.^ 

*  Sometimes  ei  as  a  diphthong. 
>  The  Vocative  is  wanting.    See  186, 1.    Foot-note. 

'  Quo  becomes  co,  cu  in  cujtcs  and  cut.     Qui  and  gu^ie  aro  formed  from  quo  and 
qua  like  hi  and  hae  in  M-c  and  hae-c  from  ho  and  ha. 


PRONOUNS. 


65 


2.  Ancient  and  Rare  Fobms  :  quojus  and  guoi  for  cujus  and  cul ;  qui 
for  quo,  qua ;  quis  (quels)  for  quibus. 

3.  Cum,  when  used  with  the  ablative  of  the  relative,  is  generally  appended 
to  it :  quibuscum. 

4.  QuicuMQUE  and  Quisquis,  whoever^  are  called  from  their  signification 
general  relatives.  Quicumque  (quicunque)  is  declined  like  qui.  Quisquis  is 
rare  except  in  the  fonns:  quisquis,  quidquid  (quicquid),  quoqud. 

6.  The  parts  of  Quicumque  are  sometimes  separated  by  one  or  more 
words :  qua  re  cumque. 

G.  Relative  Adjectives  :  qudlis,  e,  such  as ;  quantus,  a,  um,  so  great ; 
qiwt,  as  many  as;  quotus,  a,  um,  of  which  number;  and  the  double  and 
compound  forms :  qudlisqudlis,  qualiscumque,  etc. 

For  Qudlis  the  genitive  of  the  relative  with  m^di  is  often  used :  cujus- 
modi,  of  what  kind,  such  as ;  cujuscum^uemddi,  culcuimodi  (for  cujuscujus- 
mddi)y  of  whatever  kind. 


V.   Interrogative  Pronouns. 

188.  Interrogative  Pronouns  are  used  in  asking  ques- 
tions.    The  most  important  are 

Quis  and  qui  with  their  compounds. 

I.  Quis,  who,  which,  what  f 


SINGULAR. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N. 

quis 

quae 

quid 

G. 

cujus 

cujiis 

cujus 

D. 

cul 

cul 

cul 

A. 

quem 

qu5m 

quid 

A. 

quo 

qua 

quo; 

PLURAL. 

F. 


N. 


qui  quae  quae 

quorum  quarum  quorum 

quibus  quibus  quibus 

quos  quas  quae 

quibus  quibus  quibus. 


II.  Qui,  which,  what  ?  is  declined  like  the  relative  qui, 

1.  Quis  is  generally  used  substantively,  and  Qui,  adjectively. 

2.  Stem. — From  the  stem,  quo,  qua,  are  formed, — (1)  The  relative  qu% 
—(2)  The  interrogative s  quU  and  qui, — (3)  The  indefinites  quis  and  qui. 

3.  Quis  and  Quem  are  sometimes  feminine.  Qui,  for  quo,  qua,  occurs  in 
the  sense  of  how  f  The  other  ancient  forms  are  the  same  as  in  the  relative. 
See  187,  2. 

4.  Compounds  of  quis  and  qui  are  declined  like  the  simple  pronouns : 
quisnam,  qulnam,  ecquis,  etc.    But  ecquis  has  sometimes  ecqua  for  ecquae. 

5.  Interrogative  Adjectives:  qudlis,  e,  what?  quantus,  a,  um,  how 
preat  ?  qu^t,  how  many  1  quotus,  a,  um,  of  what  number?  uter,  utra,  utrum, 
which  (of  two)  ?    See  151. 


66  VERBS. 

VI.   Indefinite  Pronouns. 

189.  Indefinite  Pronouns  do  not  refer  to  any  definite 
person  or  things.     The  most  important  are 

Quis  and  qm^  with  their  compounds. 

190.  Quis,  any  one,  and  qui,  any  one,  any,  are  the 

same  in  form  and  declension  as  the  interrogatives  quis  and 

qui.     But 

1.  After  si,  msl,  ne,  and  num,  the  Fem.  Sing,  and  Neut.  Plur.  have  quae 
or  qua  :  si  quae,  si  qak. 

191.  From  quis  and  qui  are  formed 

I.  77ie  Indefinites : 

Sliquis,       aliqua,  aliquid  or  aliquod,  some,  some  one. 

quispiam,   quaepiam,     quidpiam  ^  or  quodpiam,  sojne,  some  one. 

quidam,      quaedam,      quiddam  or  quoddam,  certain,  certain  one. 

quisquSm,  quaequam,   quidquam  ^  any  one. 

II.  The  General  Indefinites : 

quisque,      quaeque,       quidque^  or  quodque,  every,  every  one. 

quivls,         quaevis,        quidvis  or  quodvis,  any  one  you  please. 

quilibet       quaelibet,     quidlibet  or  quodlibet,  any  one  you  please. 

1.  These  compounds  are  generally  declined  like  the  simple  quis  and  qui, 
but  have  in  the  Neut.  Sing,  both  quod  and  quid,  the  former  used  adjectively, 
the  latter  substantively. 

2.  Aliquis  has  aliqua  instead  of  aUquae  in  the  Fem.  Sing,  and  Neut. 
Plur.    Aliqul  for  aliquis  occurs. 

3.  Quidam  may  change  mton  before  d :  quendam  for  quemdam. 

4.  Quisquam  generally  wants  the  Fem.  and  the  Plur. 

5.  Unus  prefixed  to  quisque  does  not  affect  its  declension :  unusquisque^ 
unaquaeque,  etc. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
VERBS. 

192.  Verbs  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  express  existence, 
condition,  or  action  :  est,  he  is  ;  dormU,  he  is  sleeping  ; 
UgUj  he  reads. 

»  Sometimes  written  respectively,  quippiam,  quicquam,  quicque. 


VERBS.  67 

193.  Verbs  comprise  two  principal  classes  : 

I.  Transitive  Verbs, — which  admit  a  direct  object 
of  their  action  :  servUm  verb^rdt,  he  beats  the  slave.' 

II.  IxTRANsmvE  Verbs, — which  do  not  admit  such  an 
object :  pu^r  currit,  the  boy  runs.  ^ 

194.  Verbs  have  Voice,  Mood,  Tense,  Number,  and 
Person, 

I.  Vo  I  c  E  s. 

195.  There  are  two  Voices  : 

I.  The  Active  Voice,'' — which  represents  the  subject 
as  acting  or  existing  :  pdt^r  filiiim  dmdt,  the  father  loves 
his  son  ;  est,  he  is. 

II.  The  Passive  Voice, — which  represents  the  subject 
as  acted  upon  by  some  other  person  or  thing  :  JtliUs  d  pdtre 
dmatUr,  the  son  is  loved  by  his  father. 

1.  Intransitive  Verbs  generally  have  only  the  active  voice,  but  are 
sometimes  used  impersonally  in  the  passive.     See  301,  1. 

2.  Deponent  Verbs  '  are  Passive  in  form,  but  not  in  sense :  loqiidr,  to 
speak.     But  see  225. 

II.  Mo  CDS. 

196.  Moods*  are  either  Definite  or  Indefinite  : 

I.  The  Definite  or  Finite  Moods  make  up  the  Finite 
Verb  ;  they  are  : 

1.  The  Indicative  Mood, — which  either  asserts  some- 
thing as  a,  fact  or  inquires  after  the  fact ;  l^ffit,  he  is  read- 
ing ;  legitne,  is  he  reading  ? 

2.  The  Subjunctive  Mood, — which  expresses  not  an 
actual  fact,  but  a  possibility  or  conception,  often  rendered 
hy  may,  can,  etc.  :  Ugdt,  he  may  read,  let  him  read. 

>  Here  servum,  the  slave,  Is  the  direct  object  of  the  action  denoted  by  the  verb 
verb'Srat,  beats :  beats  (what?)  the  slave. 

»  Voice  shows  whether  the  subject  acts  (Active  Voice),  or  is  acted  upon  (Passive 
Voice), 

3  So  called  from  depdno,  to  lay  aside,  as  they  dispense,  in  general,  with  the  active 
form  and  the  passive  meaning. 

*  Mood,  or  Mode,  means  manner,  and  relates  to  the  manner  in  which  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  is  expressed,  as  will  be  seen  by  observing  the  force  of  the  several  Moods. 


68  VERBS. 

But  the  Subjunctive  may  be  variously  translated,  as  we  shall  see  in 
the  Syntax. 

3.  The  Imperative  Mood, — which  expresses  a  com- 
mand  or  an  entreat^/ :  l^ge,  read  thou. 

II.  The  Indefinite  Moods  express  the  meaning  of  the 
verb  in  the  form  of  nouns  or  adjectives  ;  they  are  : 

1.  The  Infinitive, — which,  like  the  English  Infinitive, 
gives  the  simple  meaning  of  the  verb  without  any  neces- 
sary reference  to  person  or  number  :  leger^,  to  read. 

2.  The  Gerund, — which  gives  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
in  the  form  of  a  verbal  noun  of  the  second  declension,  used 
only  in  the  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  and  ablative  singu- 
lar. It  corresponds  to  the  English  participial  noun  in  ing  : 
dmandl,  of  loving  ;  amandi  causa,  for  the  sake  of  loving. 

3.  The  Supine, — which  gives  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
in  the  form  of  a  verbal  noun  of  the  fourth  declension,  used 
only  in  the  accusative  and  ablative  singular :  dmdtiXtn,  to 
love,  for  loving  ;  dmdtu,  to  be  loved,  in  loving. 

4.  The  Participle, — which,  like  the  EngUsh  participle, 
gives  the  mpaning  of  the  verb  in  the  form  of  an  adjective. 

A  Latin  verb  may  have  four  participles :  two  in  the  Active,  the  Pres- 
ent and  the  Future — amans,  loving ;  iimaiurus,  about  to  love ; — and  two  in 
the  Passive,  the  Perfect — &mdtus,  loved,  and  the  Gerundive  ^ — Umandus^ 
deserving  to  be  loved. 

III.   Tenses. 

197.  There  are  six  tenses  : 

I.  Three  Tenses  for  Incomplete  Action  : 

1.  Present :  dmo,  I  love. 

2.  Imperfect :  dmdbdm,  I  was  loving. 

3.  Future  :    dmabo,  I  shall  love. 

III.  Three  Tenses  for  Completed  Action  : 

1.  Perfect :  dmdvl,  I  have  loved,  I  loved. 

2.  Pluperfect :  dmdverdm,  I  had  loved. 

3.  Future  Perfect :  dmdverd,  I  shall  have  loved. 

1  Also  called  the  Future  Passive  Participle. 


VERBS.  Gl> 

198.  Remarks  on  Tenses. 

1.  Present  Perfect  and  Historical  Perfect. — The  Latin  Perfect 
sometimes  corresponds  to  our  Perfect  with  have  {have  loved),  and  is  called 
the  Preseyit  Perfect  or  Perfect  Definite  ;  and  sometimes  to  our  Imperfect 
or  Past  {loved),  and  is  called  the  Historical  Perfect  or  Perfect  Indefinite. 

2.  Principal  and  Historical. — Tenses  are  also  distinguished  as 

1)  Principal: — Present,  Present  Perfect,  Future,  and  Future  Perfect. 

2)  Historical: — Imperfect,  Historical  Perfect,  and  Pluperfect. 

3.  Tenses  wanting. — The  Subjunctive  wants  the  Future  and  Future 
Perfect ;  the  Imperative  has  only  the  Present  and  Future ;  the  Infinitive, 
only  the  Present,  Perfect,  and  Future, 

199.  Numbers  and  Persons. — There  are  two  num- 
bers, Singular  and  Plural,*  and  three  persons,  First, 
Second,  and  Third.' 

CONJUGATION. 

200.  Regular  verbs  are  inflected,  or  conjugated,  in 
four  different  ways,  and  are  accordingly  divided  into  Four 
Conjugations,  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the 

INFINITIVE    endings. 

Co^j.  L  Conj.  II.  Conj.  III.  •  Conj.  IV. 

are,  ere,  Sre,  ire. 

201.  Stem  and  Principal  Parts. — The  Present  In- 
dicative, Present  Infinitive,  Perfect  Indicative,  and  Supine 
are  called  from  their  importance  the  Priiicipal  Parts  of 
the  verb.  They  are  all  formed,  by  means  of  certain  end- 
ings, from  one  common  base,  called  the  Stem,"* 

202.  The  Entire  Conjugation  of  any  regular  verb 
may  be  readily  formed  from  the  Principal  Parts  by  means 
of  the  proper  endings.' 

203.  Sl'M,  /  am,  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  passive  voice  of 
regular  verbs.  Accordingly  its  conjugation,  though  quite  irregular,  must 
be  given  at  the  outset. 


'  As  in  Nouns.    See  44. 

«  For  treatment  of  stems,  see  249-257. 

'  In  the  Paradigms  of  regular  verbs,  the  endings,  both  those  which  distinguish  tho 
Principal  Parts  and  those  which  distinguish  the  forms  derived  from  those  parts.  ar« 
separately  Indicated,  and  should  bo  crireftilly  noticed. 


70 


VERBS. 


204.  Siim,  7  am.— Stems,  ^,/w.' 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
Prefl.  Ind.  Pros.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

sum,  esse,  ful, 

Indicative   Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
I  am. 


Supin*. 


fugrSm, 

fueras, 
fuerat, 


fuero, 
fuens, 
fuerit, 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

sum,' 

/am, 

siimus. 

we  are, 

«8, 

thou  art^^ 

estis, 

you  are, 

est, 

he  is  ; 

sunt. 

they  are. 

Imperfect. 

I  was. 

erSm, 

I  was  J 

Sramus, 

we  were, 

eras, 

thou  wastj 

eratis, 

you  were, 

erat, 

he  was  ; 

erant. 

they  were. 

Future. 

/  shall  or  will  be. 

gr6, 

J  shall  be, 

erimus. 

we  shall  be. 

eris, 

thou  wilt  bey 

eritis, 

you  ivill  be. 

crit, 

he  will  be  ; 

erunt. 

they  will  be. 

Perfect. 

I  have  been,  was. 

ful, 

I  have  been. 

fuimus, 

we  have  been. 

fuisti, 

thou  hast  been. 

fuistis, 

you  have  been. 

futt, 

he  has  been  ; 

fuerunt 
fuere. 

they  have  been. 

Pluperfect. 

I  had  been. 

I  had  been,  fueramus,  we  had  been, 

thou  hadst  been,  fueratis,      you  had  been, 

he  had  been ;  fuerant,      they  had  been. 

Future  Perfect. 

I  shall  or  will  have  been. 


/shall  have  been, 
thou  wilt  have  been, 
he  will  have  been  : 


fuenmus,  we  shall  have  been, 
fuentis,  you  will  have  been, 
fuerint,       they  will  have  been. 


^  Sum  has  two  Verb-Stems,  while  regular  verbs  have  only  one. 
2  Sum  is  for  4sum,  eram  tor  esam.    Whenever  s  of  the  stem  &  comes  between  two 
vowels,  e  is  dropped,  as  in  sum,  sunt,  or  s  is  changred  to  r,  as  in  ^ram,  &0.    See  85. 
'  Or  you  are  ;  thou  is  confined  mostly  to  solemn  discourse. 


YEBBS. 


71 


sIm, 
sis, 


essgs, 
essSt, 


fuSrIm, 

fueris, 

fuSrIt, 


fuissSm, 

fuissgs, 

fuissgt, 


tiUBJUNCTIVB. 

Present. 
I  may  or  can  be. 


SINGULAR. 

I  may  6e,* 
thou  mayst  be, 
he  may  be  ; 


Sim  us, 

sltis, 

sint, 

Imperfect. 
/  mighty  could,  would,  or  should  be. 


PLURAL. 

vie  may  6g, 
you  may  be, 
they  may  be. 


I  miff ht  be,  essemus,     we  might  be^ 

thou  miffhtst  be,  essetis,        you  might  be, 

he  might  be ;  essent,         they  might  be. 

Perfect. 
I  may  or  can  have  been. 


I  may  have  been, 
thou  mayst  have  been, 
he  may  have  been  ; 

Pluperfect. 
I  might,  could,  wovld,  or  should  have  been 


fuenmus,    we  may  have  been, 
fueritis,       you  may  have  been, 
fuerint,       tJiey  may  have  been. 


I  might  have  been, 
thou  mightst  have  been, 
he  might  have  been  ; 


fuissemus,  we  might  have  been, 
fuissetis,     you  might  have  been, 
fuissent,      they  might  have  been. 


pRES.  Ss,     be  thou,  \  est§,  be  ye. 

FuT.     esto,  thou  shall  be,*  I  estote,        ye  shall  be, 

esto,  he  shall  be  ;*  I  sunto,  they  shall  be. 

Infinitive.  Participle 

Pres.  esse,  to  be. 

Perf.  fuisse,  to  have  been. 

FuT.    futurus  esse,'  to  be  about  to  be.   Fct.     futuriis,'  about  to  be. 

1.  In  the  Paradigm  all  the  forms  beginning  with  eoT  s  are  from  the  stem 
«/  all  others  from  the  stem/w. 

2.  Rare  Forhs  :—/drem, /ores, /oret, /oreni,  fore,  for  essem,  esses,  esset, 
essent,  futurus  esse ;  siem  sies,  siet,  stent,  or  fuam,,  fuds,  fuat,  fuant,  for 
eim,  sis,  sit,  sint. 


>  On  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196, 1.  2. 

»  The  Fut.  may  also  be  rendered  like  the  Pres.,  or  with  let :  be  thou  ;  let  him  be. 

'  Futurus  is  declined  like  bonus.    So  in  the  Infinitive :  futilms,  a,  um  esse. 


72 


FIRST   CONJUGATIOX. 


FIRST    CONJUGATION:    A    VERBS 

205.   ACTIVE    VOICE. 

Amo,  Hove — Stem,  dma.^ 

PKINCIPAL   PARTS. 
Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

amar6,  amavl, 

Indicative    Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
Hove,  am  loving^  do  love. 


Pros.  Ind, 
amd, 


Supine. 
^matikm. 


Sm6, 
am  as, 
am&t, 


Smab&in, 
^ma1>as, 


^ma'bd, 
amai>is, 

amal>it, 


fimavl, 
am  avis  tl, 
SmSvit, 


amav^ram, 

Smav^ras, 

amav^rat, 


Smav^rd, 
amav^ris, 
^mav^rXt, 


SINGULAR. 

/  love, 
thou  lovest^ 
he  loves  ; 


PLURAL. 

we  love. 


I  ^mamits, 

amatis,  you  love, 

I  amant,  they  love. 

Imperfect. 
/  loved,  was  loving,  did  love. 
I  was  loving,  amai>amiis,  we  were  loving^ 

thou  wast  loving,         amal>atXs,      you  were  loving, 
he  was  loving  ;  Smabaiit, 


Future. 
I  shall  or  icill  love. 


I  shall  love, 
thou  wilt  love, 
he  will  love  : 


ama1>iiiii£S, 
amabitXs, 
ilmabuiit, 
Perfect. 
Iloved,  have  loved. 


they  were  loving. 


toe  shall  love, 
you  will  love, 
they  will  love. 


I  have  loved,  Smavimfts,     we  have  loved, 

thou  hast  loved,  amavistXs,      you  have  loved, 

he  has  loved  ;  amaveriisit,  €r^,  they  have  loved. 

Pluperfect. 
I  had  loved. 
I  had  loved,  I  amsLY^r&miis,  we  had  loved, 

thou  hadst  loved,         amav^ratls,      you  had  loved, 
he  had  loved ;  \  Smav^ramt,       they  had  loved. 

Future  Perfect, 
I  shall,  or  will  have  loved. 


/shall  have  loved, 
tJiou  wilt  have  loved, 
he  will  have  loved  ; 


amav^rinaAs,  we  shall  have  loved, 
Smav^ritXs,  you  will  have  loved, 
amav^rint,       they  will  have  loved. 


^  Tlie  final  a  of  the  stem  disappears  in  amo  for  ama-o,  amem,  ames,  etc.,  for 
ama-im,  ama-is,  etc.  Also  in  tha  Pass,  in  amor  for  ama-or,  amer,  etc.,  for  ama-ir 
etc.    8ee82,  II.  1,  S);  .32,11.2. 


ACllVE   VOICE. 


73 


SmArem, 

Smarts, 
jlmar^t, 


amav^rXm, 
SmavCrls, 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 
I  may  or  can  love. 

SINGULAR. 

I  may  love,  am€iiitt.s, 

thou  mayst  love,  SmCtls, 

he  may  love  ;  fiment, 


PLURAL. 

we  may  love, 
you  may  love, 
they  may  love. 


Imperfect. 
/  might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 
T  might  love,  aniarCmiis,  we  might  love, 

thou  mightst  love,  imarCtis,       yon  might  love, 

he  might  love ;  amarent,        they  might  love. 

Perfect. 
I  may  or  can  have  loved. 
I  may  have  loved,        I  Smav^rimiis,  we  may  have  loved, 
thoumayst  have  loved,  \  Smav^ritis,    you  may  have  loved, 
he  may  have  loved  ;     \  Smav^rimt,      they  may  have  loved. 

Pluperfect. 
I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  loved. 


Smaviss^m,  I  might  have  loved, 
SraavissSs,    thou    mightst     have 

loved, 
&m&yisti^t,    he  might  have  loved  ; 

Imperative 


amaviss^miis,  we     might     have 

loved, 
Smavissetis,  you  might  have  loved, 
amavissent,  they  might  have  loved. 


Pres.  Sma,         love  thou  ; 
FuT.    SmatO,    thou  shalt  love, 
fimatO,    he  shall  love  ; 

Infinitive. 
Pres.  Smar^,       to  love. 


Smat^,  love  ye. 

Smatot^,        ye  shall  love, 
amant6,  they  shall  love. 

Paeticiple. 

Pres.  fimans,^        loving. 


Perf 

Smaviss^,  to  have  loved. 

FuT. 

^mattkriks^   ess^,     to 
about  to  love. 

be 

FUT. 

Smatftriis,'  about  to  love. 

Gerund. 

Supine. 

Gen. 

Smandl,        of  loving. 

Dat. 

amancl6,       for  loving, 

Ace. 

amandikiii,  loving, 

Ace. 

amatikm,       to  love. 

Abl. 

amandd,        by  loving. 

Abl. 

amatil,            to  love,  be  loved. 

^  For  declension,  see  157. 


9  Decline  like  *onJ//»,  148. 


74 


FIRST   CONJUGATION. 


FIRST    CONJUGATION:    A    VERBS. 

206.   PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Amor,  I  am  loved, — Stem,  fXma, 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf. 

amdr,  amarl, 

Indicative    Mood 

Present  Tense. 
I  am  loved. 


Perf.  Ind. 


SINGULAR. 

5marXs,  or  r^ 
fimatitr ; 


Smabar 

^mai>arXs,  or  rd 
amabatiir ; 


Imperfect. 
/  was  loved. 


PLURAL. 

amamiir 
amaiuinl 
amant&r. 


Smai>ainiir 
amabamiiil 
amabantiir. 


^mabdr 

Smab^rXs,  or  r* 
amabititr : 


^mattls  siim  * 
amatiks  ^s 
^matfts  est ; 


^matiis  ^ram^ 
Smatiis  £ras 
Smattks  £rat ; 


Future. 
I  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

^mabimiir 
amabiminl 
Smabuntur. 
Perfect. 
I  have  been  or  was  loved. 

amati  siimiis 


Pluperfect. 
/  had  been  loved. 


amatX  estis 
amatl  sunt. 


amatl  ^ramiis 
Smatl  Gratis 
SmatI  ^rant. 


Future  Perfect. 
I  shall  or  will  have  been  loved. 
amatiis  ^rd  *  amatl  ^rimi&s 

Smattis  ^rls  amatl  iritis 

Smatiis  £rit ;  amatl  ^rnnt. 


*  Fui^  fuisti,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  sum.,  es,  etc. :  amdtus  fui  for  antdtUS 
sum,    So/uiram,/u&as,  etc^  for  eram,  etc.;  also fuero,  etc.,  for  «ro,  etc. 


PASSIVE   VOICE. 

Subjunctive. 


76 


Present. 
I  may  or  can  be  loved. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Smeris,  or  rfi 


SmSminl 
araentiir. 


iBfPERFECT. 

I  mighty  eauldj  toould^  or  should  be  loved. 


Smar^r 
SmUrSrls  or  r4S 
fimaretikr ; 


fimatiks  sis 
imatiks  sit ; 


^mardnliil 
fimarentiti*. 


Perfect. 


I  mat/  have  been  loved. 


SmatI  slmits 
^mutl  sitis 
^matl  sint. 


Pluperfect. 
I  mighty  could^  toould,  or  should  have  been  loved. 


&m^tik9  essoin' 
Smatiks  essSs 
Smattts  ess^t ; 


SmatI  ess^iniks 
amati  essetis 
Smati  essent. 


Imperative. 

Pres.   Smar^,  be  thou  loved ;  |      Smaiulnl,  be  ye  loved. 

FuT.     Smatdr,  thou  shalt  be  loved, 


Smatdr,  he  shall  be  loved  ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres.   Sman,  to  be  loved. 

Perf.  SmatAs  ess*,*  to  have  been 

loved. 
FuT.     amatikm  Irl,  to  be  about  to 

be  loved. 


amantdr,  they  shall  be  loved. 

Participle. 

Perf.  SmatAs,  having  been  loved, 

Ger.'  &mandfts,  to  be  loved,  de- 
serving to  be  loved. 


»  Fuirim,  fufris,  etc.,  are  Bometimes  used  for  «im,  sis,  etc.— So  also  fuissem^ 
fuisses,  etc.,  for  essem,  esses,  etc, :  nrcly  fuisse  for  esse. 
»  Gu.=06raiuUTe.    See  196, 4. 


1Q 


SECOND   CONJUGATION. 


SECOND  CONJUGATION:  B  VERBS. 

207.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

M5ne6,  J  advise. — Stem,  mdne. 


Pres.  Ind. 
m6ne6, 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

moner^,  moniil, 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
I  advise. 


Supine. 
m5nitiiiii. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

mone6 

moneiiiiis 

m6n€gi 

monCtis 

mon^t ; 

monemt. 

Imperfect. 

I  was  advising. 

moneb&m 

monebamiis 

monetoas 

monebatXs 

mon^bat ; 

mongbamt. 

Future. 

J  shall  or  will  advise. 

mon61>6 

moneblmiis 

monel>is 

monebitis 

monebit ; 

monCbunt. 

Perfect. 

/  advised  or  have  advised. 

monul 

monulmws 

monuisti 

monuistXs 

monuit ; 

monu©riiiit,  or  €r^. 

Pluperfect. 

I  had  advised. 

mSnu^ram 

monu^ramiis 

m5nu^ras 

monu^ratXs 

m5nu^rat ; 

monu^ramt. 

Future  Perfect. 

I  shall  or  will  have  advised. 

monu^pft 

monu^rimita 

monu^ris 

monu^ritXs 

monu^rXt ; 

1 

monu^rint. 

ACTIVE 

VOICE. 

Subjunctive. 

Prkhknt. 

I  may  or  can  advise. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

mSne&in 

m5neainiis 

mdnefts 

m5neatXs 

indne&t ; 

moneant. 

Imperfect. 

/  might, 

could,  would,  or  should  advise. 

mSnCr^m 

mon©r€mii» 

mSnCrCs 

monCretis 

m5n6rCt ; 

monCrent. 

Perfect. 

1  mag  have  advised. 

m5nu£rliii 

monu^rimiis 

mSnu^rts 

monu^ritis 

mSnufirit ; 

monu^rint. 

Pluperfect. 

I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  advised. 

m6nuiss6iii 

munuiss^miks 

m6nuiss€s 

monuissetis 

mSauiss^t ; 

monuissent. 

Imperative. 

3.  m6n©,        advise  thou  ; 

monet^,        advise  ye. 

17 


Fut.    mon6t6,  thou  shalt  advise, 
mdnCt^,  he  shall  advise  ; 

Infinitive. 
Pres.  monCr^,       to  advise. 
Perf.  monuissC,    to  have  advised. 
Fut.    mSnltflirtts    ess*,    to    be 
about  to  advise. 

Gerund. 

Gen.  m5neii«ll,       of  advising, 

Dat.  rauucndd,     for  advising. 

Ace.  munend&iii,  advising, 

Abl.  m6neiid6,      by  advising. 


monCtot*,  ye  shall  advise, 
monciit6,    they  sliall  advise. 

Participle. 
Pres.  mSnens,        advising. 

Fut.     mSnltllrtts,  about  to  advise. 

Supine. 


Ace.     rahnXtikm,      to  advise, 
Abl.      mSnItll,  to  advise,  be  advised. 


78 


SECOND   CONJUGATION. 


SECOND    OONJUGATIOlSr:    B    VERBS. 

208.  PASSIVE   VOICE. 

M6ne5r,  I  am  advised. — Stem,  mbne. 

PKINCIPAIi   PAETS. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

monerl,  monitiis  siim. 

Indicative    Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
I  am  advised. 


Pres.  Ind. 
monedr, 


SINGULAR. 

monedr 
monerXs,  or  r6 
monetiir ; 


monetoarXs,  or  r& 
monel>atiir ; 


Imperfect. 
I  was  advised. 


PLURAL. 

monemiir 
monemiul 
moneiitM.r. 


m6nel>ainiir 
monel^amlnl 
monebantikr. 


inon6"bdr 
moneb^rXs,  or  r6 
monebitikr ; 


momtiis  stkm^ 

monit&s  ^9 
monitiis  est ; 


monitits  ^r^m  * 
monitiis  ^r&s 
mSnItAs  ^rd.t : 


Future. 
I  shall  or  will  be  advised. 

monebimtir 
monebXminl 
monebiinluiir. 
Perfect. 
I  have  been  or  was  advised. 

monitl  siimuLS 
monitl  estis 
monitl  sunt. 
Pluperfect. 
I  had  been  advised. 

monitl  ^raiuiis 
monitl  Gratis 
moniti  ^rant. 
Future  Perfect. 
I  shall  or  will  have  been  advised. 


mSnitiis  ^rd  ^ 
monitiis  ^rXs 
monittt-s  ^rXt ; 


monitl  ^rlmiis 
monitl  iritis 
monitl  ^runt. 


^  See  206,  foot-notes. 


PASSIVE   VOICE. 


79 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 
I  may  or  can  be  advised. 

PLURAL. 

mone&miir 
mdneaminl 

moneantiir. 

Imperfect. 
/  mighty  cotUd,  toouldy  or  should  be  advised. 
mSnCr^r  monerSmiiLr 

m5n6r€ris,  or  r€  monCrCiiiXnl 

m5nSr£tikr :  monSrentikr. 


SINGULAR. 

mSne&r 

mSneftris,  or  r^ 
mdnellt  ttr ; 


Perfect. 
Imai/  have  been,  advised. 

monUl  slmiis 
montti  sitis 
m5nttl  sint. 

Pluperfect. 
I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  been  advised. 


m5ntttis  sim  * 
monitiis  sis 
monitiks  sit ; 


monitiis  essoin  ^ 
monitiis  essSs 
monit&s  ess^t ; 


monitl  essSmiks 
m5nitl  essetis 
m5iiltl  esi$eiit. 


Imperative. 

pRES.  monfip^,     be  thou  advised  ;  \  monCinXiiI,  be  ye  advised. 


FuT.     toonCtdr,  thou  shalt  be  ad- 
vised, 
mSnCtdr,  he    shall    be  ad- 
vised ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres.  monCrl,  to  he  advised. 
Perf.  mSnitiks  ess^/  to  have  been 

advised. 
FuT.     monitiim  IpI,    to  be  about 

to  be  advised. 


mSnentdr,  they  shall  be  advised. 

Participle. 

Perp.  monitiks,         advised. 

Ger.    monendiks,  to  be  advised, 
deserving  to  be  advised. 


>  Bee  206,  foot-Dotes. 


80 


THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


THIRD    CONJUGATION:    CONSONANT  .VERBS. 

209.   ACTIVE  YOICE. 

Rego,  I  rule. — Stem,  reg. 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

rSgd,  reg^r^,  rexi,^ 

Indicative    Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
I  rule. 


Supine, 
recitun.' 


8INGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

rgg6 

rSgimiis 

rSgis 

rggXtXs 

rSgXt; 

regiint. 

Imperfect. 

I  was  ruling. 

rgg^bftm 

rgg^bamiis 

rgg«l>as 

reg^'batis 

rgg6l>at; 

reg^bant. 

Future. 

J  shall  or  will  rule 

. 

regftm 

regemiis 

regCs 

regetis 

reg«t; 

regent. 

Perfect. 

I  ruled  or  have  ruled. 

rexl 

reximiis 

rexistl 

rexistls 

rexit ; 

rex^mnt,  or  €r*. 

Pluperfect. 

I  had  ruled. 

rex^r&m 

rex^ramiis 

rex^ras 

rex^ratis 

rex^rftt ; 

rexdrant. 

Future  Perfect 

I  shall  or  will  have  ruled. 

rex^r* 

rex^rimiis 

rex^ris 

rex^ritis 

rex«rXt; 

rex^rint. 

»  See  218,  III.  1 ;  253,  1. 1 ;  258,  II.  1. 


ACTIVE    VOICE. 


81 


Subjunctive 


Present. 

I  may  or  can  rule. 

SINGULAR.                                                     PLURAL. 

rSg&m 

r^gftmiis 

rggfts 

regatis 

rSg&t- 

regant. 

Imperfect. 

I  miff  fit,  could,  would,  or  should  rule. 

rgg^r^m 

reg^r^miks 

r^g^rCs 

reg«r€ti8 

r6g«r«t ; 

reg^rent. 

Perfect. 

I  may  have  ruled. 

rex^rim 

rez^rtmiis 

rex^rls 

rex^rtfls 

rex^rlt; 

rex^rint. 

Pluperfect. 

I  might,  could,  toould,  or  should  have  ruled. 

rexlss^m 

rcxiss^miis 

rexissCs 

rexiss^tis 

rexiss^t ; 

rcxissent. 

Pres.   rgg*, 


Imperative. 

?*M?e  thou ;  I  rSgXt^,         rM?e  ye. 


Put.     rggXt6,     /Aom  sAaft  rule, 
regit  <^,     A*  «Aa^Z  rw/e  ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres.  rSg^r^,     to  rule. 
Perf.  rexiss^,   to  have  ruled. 
Put.     rectHriis  ess^,  to  be  abovi 
to  rule. 

Geeund. 

Oen.  regendl,         of  ruling, 

Dat.  rggend6,       for  ruling, 

Ace.  regendiiiii,  ruling, 

Ahl.  rggendd,       hy  ruling. 


regttOt^,    ye  shall  rule, 
rgguiitd,    they  shall  rule. 

Participle, 

Pres.  rSgens,      ruling. 


Put.    rectllrtts,  about  to  nUe. 
Supine. 


Ace.     rectiim,  to  rule, 

Abl.    rectik,       to  rule,  be  ruUd. 


82 


THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


THIRD    CONJUGATION:    CONSONANT   VERBS, 

210.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Regor,  lam  ruled. — Stem,  rig. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Pres.  Inf. 

regl, 

Indicative   Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
/  am  ruled. 


Pres.  Ind. 
regdr, 


Perf.  Ind. 
rectiis  ^  silm. 


SINGULAR. 

rggdr 

reg^rXfs,  or  r€ 
regXtiir ; 


rggCb&r 

regebaris,  or  r^ 
regebat&r ; 


Imperfect. 
/  was  ruled. 


PLURAL. 

reglmtir 
rggXmlnl 
reguntilr. 


regebamikr 
regebamXnl 
regebautiiir. 


rggftr 

regCrXs,  or  r^ 
regCtilr ; 


rectits  siim' 
rectiks  ^s 
recttks  est ; 


rectiis  ^ram' 
rectiks  ^rfts 
recttks  ^rat ; 


rectiis  €r & ' 
rectiis  ^ris 
rectiis  ^rit ; 


Future. 
I  shall  or  will  he  ruled. 

regSmiir 
regemXnl 
regentiir. 
Perfect. 
I  have  been  or  was  ruled. 

recti  siimiis 
recti  estis 
recti  sunt. 
Pluperfect. 
1  had  been  ruled. 

recti  ^ramiis 
recti  Gratis 
recti  ^rant. 
Future  Perfect. 
I  shall  or  will  have  been  ruled. 

recti  ^rXmiis 
recti  iritis 
recti  ^rnnt. 


See  309,  foot-not«9. 


9  gM  206,  foot-aot«». 


PASSIVE   VOICE. 


83 


SINGULAR. 

rSg&r 

rSgftrXs,  or  r^ 
regatikr ; 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 
I  may  or  can  he  I'uled. 

PLURAL. 

regamikr 
regaminl 
reganttir. 


Imperfect. 
I  mighty  could,  would,  or  sliould  be  ruled. 


reg^r^r 

rSgCrCrXs,  or  p6 
reg^pCtitr ; 


rectiis  slm  ^ 
rectiis  sis 
recttks  sit ; 


rSg^pCmiir 

reg^r<BiiiiiiI 

reg^renttir. 


Perfect. 
I  may  have  been  ruled. 


recti  slmjifii 
recti  sItXs 
recti  sint. 


Pluperfect. 
ImiglUy  could,  would,  or  should  have  been  ruled. 
rectjis  ess^mi^  recti  essCmiis 

rectiis  ess^s  recti  ess^tis 

rectiks  ess^t ;  recti  essent. 

Imperative. 

Pres.  reg^p^,  be  thou  ruled ;  I  rggimliil,   be  ye  ruled. 

FuT.     rSgitdr,  thou  shall  be  ruled,  I 

regit^r,  he  shall  be  ruled ;     \  rgguntdr,  tliey  shall  be  ruled. 


Infinitive. 

Pres.  rggi,  to  be  ruled. 

Perf.  rectiis  ess^,'  to  Jiave  been 

rided. 
FcT.     rectttm  Irl,  to  be  about  to 

be  ruled. 


PaPwTICIPLE. 

Perf.  rectiis,  ruled. 

Ger.    regendiis,  to  be  ruled,  de- 
serving to  be  ruled. 


See  206,  foot-notes. 


84 


FOURTH   CONJUGATION. 


Pres.  Ind. 
audid. 


FOURTH    CONJUGATION:    I    VERBS 

211.   ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Audio,  I  hear. — Stem,  audi, 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  InC  Perf.  Ind. 

audlr^,  audlvl, 

Indicative    Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
/  hear. 


Supine, 
audltiim. 


SINGULAR. 

PLUS  AT,. 

audio 

1 

audlmiis 

audls 

1 

auditis 

audit; 

Imperfect. 
Iwoji  hearing. 

audiumt. 

aTidie1>&iii 

audiefeamiis 

andi€l>as 

audiel>atXs 

audiel^at; 

andieifant. 

Future. 

lihaU  or  wid  hear. 

audi^m 

aiidiSmfts 

audits 

audietis 

audi^t; 

audient. 

Perfect. 

I  heard  or  have  heard. 

audivl 

audTvimiis 

audlvisti 

audivistXs 

audlvit ; 

audlveriiiit,  or  €r*. 

Pluperfect. 

I  had  heard. 

audiv«r&iii 

audiv^ram&s 

audiv^ras 

audiv^ratis 

audiv^r&t ; 

Future  Perfect 

audlv^rant. 

I  shall  or  will  have  heard. 

audlv^rO 

audiY^rfiniis 

audiv^ris 

audiv^pitXs 

audlvCrXt ; 

audlv^rint. 

ACITVE    VOICE. 


85 


Subjunctive, 


Present. 

/  may  or  can  hear. 

SINGULAR.                                                              PLUBAL. 

audi&m 

audiftmiUi 

audifts 

audiatis 

audi&t ; 

audiant. 

Imperfect. 

I  mighty  could,  would,  or  should  hear. 

audlr^m 

audlrSmiis 

audlrCs 

audXr€tXs 

audlr^t ; 

audlrent. 

Perfect. 

I  may  have  heard. 

audlv^rlni 

audiv^rfmiis 

audlv^ris 

audlv^ritis 

audiv^rlt ; 

audlv^rint. 

Pluperfect. 

/  miffht,  could,  would,  or  should  have  heard. 

audlviss^m 

audivissSmiis 

audlviss€s 

audiviss€ti» 

audlviss^t ; 

audivissent. 

Imperative. 

}.  audi,          h£ar  thou  ; 

audita,          hear  ye. 

Fut.    audltd,     thou  shalt  hear, 
audltd,     he  shall  hear  ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres.   audlr^,         to  hear. 
Perf.  audlviss^,    to  have  heard. 
Fut.     audltttriis     essd,    to    he 
about  to  hear. 

Gerund. 

Gen.  audiendl,       of  hearing. 

Dat.  audiendd,    for  hearing. 

Ace.  audiendiiin,  hearing. 

All.  audiendl,      by  hearing. 


audltSt^,     ye  shall  hear, 
audiuntd,   they  shall  hear. 

Participle. 

Pres.  audiems,       hearing. 

Fut.     audltflipiis,   about  to  hear. 
Supine. 


Ace.    audrtiim,  to  hear. 

Abl.     audltfi,       to  hear,  he  heard. 


86 


FOURTH    CONJUGATION. 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION:  I  VERBS. 

212.   PASSIVE   VOICE. 

Audior,  I  am  heard. — Stem,  audi. 

PKINCIPAL   PAKTS. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

audlrl,  audltiks  sttm. 

Indicative    Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
I  arm  heard. 


Pres.  Ind. 
audidr, 


SINGULAR. 

audidr 

audlris,  or  -riS 
audltiir ; 


audiei>&]- 
audiebarXs,  or  r^ 
audie1>atiir ; 


Imperfect. 
Iwai  heard. 


PLURAL. 

audlmilr 
audlminl 
audiuntiir. 


audiS1>a,iiiiir 
audi€l>aiiiiiil 
audiebantikr. 


audi&r 

audiCrXs,  or  r^ 
audiiStikr ; 


audltiijii  s&nt^ 
audltiks  ^s 
audltiis  est ; 


audltiis  ^r&m ' 
audltiis  ^ras 
audltiis  ^rilt : 


Future. 
I  shall  or  will  he  heard. 

audi^miir 
audidniiil 
audientiir. 
Perfect. 
I  have  been  heard. 

audltl  siimiis 


Pluperfect. 
/  had  been  heard. 


audltl  estis 
audltl  sunt. 


audltl  ^ramtis 
audltl  Gratis 
auditi  £rant. 


Future  Perfect. 
I  shall  or  will  have  been  heard. 


audltiis  ^ro  ^ 
audltiis  ^rXs 
audltiis  ^rit ; 


auditi  ^rimiis 
audltl  iritis 
audltl  ^mnt. 


J  See  20(5.  foot-notes. 


PASSIVE   VOICE. 


87 


SUBJUXCTIVE. 

Present. 

I  may  or  can  be  heard. 


SINGULAR. 

tiudi&r 

audiftris,  or  r£ 
audiatiir ; 


PLURAL. 

audiamikr 
audiamlnl 
audiantiir. 


Imperfect. 
/  mighty  could^  would,  or  should  be  Jieard. 
audlr^r  audlrCmikr 

audlr€rls,  or  r*  audlrCminl 

audlrCtikr ;  audlrentikr. 

Perfect. 
I  may  have  been  heard. 
audlti&s  slm  *  audltl  »Imiis 

audltiis  sis  audltl  sltXs 

auditils  sit ;  audltl  sint. 

Pluperfect, 
I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  Iiave  been  heard. 


audltiis  essoin ' 
audlttts  essSs 
audltfts  ess^t ; 


audltl  essSmils 
audltl  essCtis 
audltl  essent. 


Imperative. 

Pres.  audlr^,     be  thou  heard ;        I  audlmXnl,     be  ye  heard. 

Fut.     auditor,  thou  shalt  be  heard,\ 

auditor,  he  shall  be  heard  ;  I  audiuntdr,  they  shall  be  heard. 


Infinitive. 

Pres.  audlrl,  to  be  heard. 

Perf.  auditiks  ess^,'  to  have  been 

heard. 
Fut.     audltttm  Irl,      to  be  about 

to  be  heard. 


Participle. 

Perf.  audltils,  heard. 

Ger.    audiendfts,  to    be    heard, 
deserving  to  be  heard. 


*  See  206,  foot-notes. 


88 


VERBAL    INFLECTIONS. 


VERBAL    INFLECTIONS. 
213.    Principal    Parts.  — The   Principal    Parts    are 
formed  in^the  four  conjugations  with  the  following  end- 
ings, including  final  a,  e  or  ^,  of  the  stem  : ' 


I. 

0, 

are, 

avi, 

aium. 

fl.  In 

a  feio  verbs . 

II.  - 

eo, 

ere. 

evi, 

etum. 

2.  In 

most  verbs : 

.60, 

ere, 

ui, 

itnm. 

1.  In  consonant  stems : 

IIL- 

0, 

2.  In 

0, 

ere, 

vowel  stems . 

ere. 

si, 

turn, 
turn. 

IV.      io, 

ire, 

ivi. 

Itum. 

Examples. 

I. 

Amo, 

amare, 

am  avi, 

amatum, 

to  love. 

II. 

1.  Deleo, 

2.  Moneo, 

delere, 

delevi. 

deletum, 

io  destroy. 

monere. 

monui, 

monitum, 

to  advise. 

TTT 

1.  Carpo, 

2.  Acuo, 

carpere, 

carpsi, 

carptum, 

to  pluck. 

111. 

Scuere, 

acui, 

acutum, 

to  sharpen. 

IV. 

Ax 

idio, 

audire, 

audivi. 

audltum, 

to  hear. 

214,  Compounds. — Compounds  of  verbs  with  dissyl- 
labic supines  generally  change  the  stem-vowel  in  forming 
the  principal  parts  : 

I.  When  the  Present  of  the  compound  has  ifor  e  of  the  simple  verb : 

1.  The  Perfect  and  Supine  generally  resume  the  e :  ^ 

E6go,  regere,  rexi,  rectum,  to  rule. 

Dl-rigo,  dirigere,  direxi,  directum,  to  direct. 

2.  But  sometimes  only  the  Supine  resumes  the  e :  ^ 

Teneo,  tenere,  tenui,  tentum,  to  hold. 

De-tineo,  detinere,  detinui,  detentum,      "^to  detain. 

II,  When,  the  Present  of  the  compound  has  i  for  a  of  the  simple  verb : 
1.  The  Perfect  generally  resumes  the  vowel  of  the  simple  perfect  and 

the  supine  takes  e,  ^  sometimes  a : 

»  We  class  eti  and  etum  with  the  regular  formations,  because  they  are  the  ftill  and 
original  forms  from  which  the  more  common  vA,  and  Mitmn  are  derived:  thus  the  full 
forms  in  moneo  would  be  monevi,  monetum.  By  dropping  e  in  motievi,  and  by  chang- 
ing the  consonant  v  into  its  corresponding  vowel  w,  we  have  monui.  So  by  weaken- 
ing e  into  I  in  monetum,  we  have  monitum. 

'  The  favorite  vowel  before  two  consonants  or  a  double  consonant.    See  28,  2. 


VERBAL   INFLECTIONS.  89 

C&pio,  capere,  cepi,  captum,  to  take. 

Ac-cipio,  accip^re,  accepi,  acceptum,         to  accept. 

2.  But  sometimes  the  Perfect  retains  i  and  the  Supine  takes  e :  • 
Eipio,  rapgre,  rapui,  raptum,  to  seize. 

Di-ripio,  diripere,  diripui,  direptum,         to  tear  asunder. 

For  Reduplication  in  compounds^  see  255,  L  4 ;   other  peculiarities  of 
compounds  will  be  noticed  irndcr  the  separate  conjugations. 

215.  Entiee  Conjugation. — From  an  inspection  of 
the  paradigms,  it  will  be  seen,  that  all  the  forms  of  any  reg- 
ular verb,  through  all  the  moods  and  tenses  of  both  voices, 
arrange  themselves  in  three  distinct  groups  or  systems  ; 

L  The  Peesent  System,  with  the  Present  Infinitive  as 
its  basis,  comprises 

1.  The  Present^  Imperfect,  and  Future  Indicative — Active  and 
Passive. 

2.  The  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive — Active  and  Passive. 

3.  The  Imperative — Active  and  Passive. 

4.  The  Present  Infinitive — Active  and  Passive. 

5.  The  Present  Active  Participle. 

6.  The  Gerund  and  the  Gerundive. 

These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Present  Stem,  found  in  the 
Present  Infinitive  by  dropping  the  ending  rS  of  the  Active  or  rl 
of  the  Passive  in  Con  J.  I.  II.  and  IV.  and  grS  of  the  Active  or  I 
of  the  Passive  in  Conj.  III. :  amdre,  present  stem  ama  ;  monir^, 
mone;  r^gere,  beg;  audlre,  audl 

n.  The  Peefect  System,  with  the  Perfect  Indicative 
Active  as  its  basis,  comprises  in  the  Active  voice 

1.  The  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative. 

2.  Tlie  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive. 

3.  The  Perfect  Infinitive. 

These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Perfect  Stem,  found  in 
the  Perfect  Indicative  Active  by  dropping  i :  amdvi,  perfect  stem 
AMAv;  monui,  monit. 

III.  The  Supin:e  System,  vdth  the  Supine  as  its  basis, 
comprises 

1.  The  Supines  in  ixm  and  u,  the  former  of  which  with  Irl 
forms  the  Future  Infinitive  Passive. 

2.  The  Future  Active  and  Perfect  Passive  Participles,  the  for- 

»  The  favorite  vowel  before  two  consonants  or  a  double  consonant.    See  28,  2, 


90 


SYNOPSIS    OF   CONJUGATION. 


mer  of  which  with  esse  forms  the  Future  Active  Infinitive^  and 
the  latter  of  which  with  the  proper  parts  of  the  auxiliary  sum 
forms  in  the  Passive  those  tenses  which  in  the  Active  belong  to 
the  Perfect  System. 

These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Supine  Stem^  found  in  the 
Supine  by  dropping  um :  amdtum,  supine  stem  amat  ;  monitum^ 

MONIT. 

216.  These  three  Systems  of  Forms  are  seen  in  the  fol- 
lowing Synopsis  of  Conjugation. 


SYNOPSIS    OF    CONJUGATION. 

217.    FIRST  CONJUGATION. 

I.    ACTIVE  VOICE. 

1.   Principal  Parts. 

amo,  amarS,  amavi,  amattim. 


2.  Present  System  :  Stem,  dma. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres.    5m6 
Imp.     SmabSm 
Fut.     amabo 


]      SUBJITNCTIVE, 

Smem 
amarem 


IMPEB. 

am  a 


INFINITIVB. 

Smaro 


PARTICIPLKi 

amans. 


Smato 
Gerund,  amandi,  do,  etc. 


Perf.    Smavl 
Plup.    fimaveram 
F.P.     amavuro 


3.  Perfect  System  :  Stem,  cimdv. 

amavissS. 


amaverim 
amavissem 


Fut, 


Pres.    SmSr 
Imp.     SmabSr 
Fut     Smabor 


4.  Supine  System  :  Stem,  dmat. 

1  lamaturus  esse  l^aturus. 

Supine,  amatum,  amatu. 

II.    PASSIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

S,m6r,         amari,         amatiis  siim. 

2.  Present  System:  Stem,  dma, 

amari 


amer 
SmarSr 


jSmare 
aniator 


Gerundive,  amandiis. 


SYNOPSIS    OF   CONJUGATION. 


n 


3.  Supine  System  :  Stem,  d7nat. 


IMPER. 

INFINITIVE. 

PABTICIPLB. 

Smatus  ess8 

amatus. 

Smatiim  Irl 

INDICATIVE.  I   BUBJUNCTIVE. 

Per/.  Smatus  sum     Smatus  sIm 

Flup.  fimatiis  erSm  lamatiis  essSm 

F.  P.  fimatiis  gro 
Fut.  1 


218.    SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

I.    ACTIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

inSneo,         mSnerS,         mSnui,         m5nltiim. 

2.  Present  System  :  Stem,  77id?i€. 


Pres.    moneo 
Imp.     m6neb5rn 
Fut.     monebo 


m6neSm  m5ne       monere 

raonerem 

moneto 
Gerund^  m5nendl,  do,  etc, 


monenf. 


Perf.    monul 
Plup.    m5nuerSm 
F.  P.    monuer6 


3.  Perfect  System:  Stem,  m6nu, 

monuisse 


Imonuerim 
monuissSm 


4.  Supine  System  :  Stem,  mdmt. 

Fut,  I  I  Imontturus  esse  |iu5nUurus. 

Supine,  mdnttum,  mSnItu. 

n.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

m6ne5r,  mSneri,  m^nittis  stlm. 

2.  Present  System  :   Stem,  mone, 

moneri  | 


Pres. 

moneor 

luonear 

monerS 

Imp. 

monebSr 

monerer 

Fat. 

monebor 

mSnetor 

Perf.  monTtus  sum 

Plup.  monltus  eram 

F.  P.  monltus  5r6 
Fut. 


Gerundive,  mSnendus. 

3,  Supine  System  :  Stem,  mdmt. 

raonitiis  esse       monltus. 


monltus  sIm 
monitiis  essem 


monttum  M 


SYNOPSIS   OF   COXJUGATION. 

219.  THIRD  CONJUGATION-. 

I.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

1.   Pkincipal  Parts. 


rSgo, 


resrere. 


rexi. 


recttlm. 


2.  Present  System  :  Stem,  reg. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres.    rego 
Imp.     rggebara 
Fut.     reg2m 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

regam 
regerem 


IMPER. 

rege 


INFINITIVE. 

regere 


Perf.    rexi 
Plup.   rexeram 
F.  P.   rexero 


Fut. 


jregito 
Gerund^  regendl,  do,  etc. 

8.  Perfect  System  :  Stem,  rex 

rexerim  rexisse 

rexissem 

4.  Supine  System  :  Stem,  red. 

I  irecturus  esse 

Supine^  rectum,  rectu. 

II.   PASSIVE  VOICE. 

1.   Principal  Parts. 

rSgSr,  regi,  rectus  siim. 

2.  Present  System  :  Stem,  r<^g. 


Pres.    regor 
Imp.     regebar 
Fut.     rggSr 


regerer 


regere 
regit  or 


regi 


PARTKCIPLB. 

iregens. 


irecturiig. 


Perf.  rectus  sum 

Plup.  rectus  eram 

F.  P.  rectus  ero 
Fut. 


Gerundive,  regendiis. 

3.  Supine  System  :  Stem,  red. 

rectus  esse 


rectus  Sim 
rectus  essem 


rectus. 


rectum  irl 

220.  FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 

I.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

audio,         audire,  audivi,  audittim. 


SYNOPSIS   OF   CONJUGATION. 


93 


2.  Present  System  :  Stem,  audi. 


INDICATIVE. 

SUBJITNCTIVE. 

niPER. 

INFlKinVB. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.    audio 

audiam 

audi 

audlrg 

audiens. 

Imp.     audiebSm 

ludlrem 

FuL      audiim 

audlto 

Gerund,  audiendl,  do,  etc. 

3.  Perfect  System  :   Stem,  audlv. 

Per/,    audlvl 

audlvSrim 

audivissS 

Plup.   audlver5m 

audivissSm 

F.  P.   audlvero 

Fut, 


4.  Supine  System  :   Stem,  audit. 

I  [audlturus  ess6   [audituriis, 

Supiiie,  audit  iim,  auditu. 

II.   PASSIVE  VOICE. 

1.   Principal  Parts. 

audi5r,  audiri,  audittls  stm, 

2.  Present  System  :  Stem,  audi. 
audiri 


Preh. 

audior 

audiSr 

audire 

Imp. 

audiebSr 

audirer 

Fdt. 

audiSr 

auditor 

Per/,  audltus  sum 

Plup.  audltus  erSm 

F.  P.  audltus  gro 
Fut. 


Gerundive,  audiendus. 
3.  Supine  System  :  Stem,  audit, 

audltus  esso 


audltus  sim 
audltus  essoin 


lauditiis. 


auditiim  111 


THIRD    CONJUGATION:    VERBS    IN    10. 

221.  A  few  verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation  form  the 
Present  Indicative  in  io,  ior,  like  verbs  of  the  Fourth 
Conjugation.  They  are  inflected  with  the  endings  of  the 
Fourth  wherever  those  endings  have  two  successive  vowels. 
These  verbs  are 

1.  The  following  with  their  compounds : 

Cfipio,  to  take;  cupio,  to  desire;  /ado,  to  make;  fodio,  to  dig; 
fugioy  to  flee ;  jScio,  to  throw ;  p&rio,  to  bear ;  qiUitio,  to  shake ;  rSpiOf 
to  seize ;  s&pio,  to  be  wise. 


94  THIRD    CONJUGATION.       VERBS    IN    10. 

2.  The  compounds  of  the  obsolete  IdciOy  to  entice,  and  sp^cio,  to  look  ; 
alUcio,  eliciOy  illicio,  pellicio,  etc. ;  aspicio,  conspicio,  etc. 

3.  The  Deponent  Verbs :  gr&dior,  to  go ;  mSrior,  to  die ;  pdtior,  to 
suffer.    See  225. 

222.   ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Capio,  J  take. — Stem,  cdp. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Supine. 

capio,  capere,  cepi,  capttim. 

Indicative    Mood. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Pres.  capio,  cSpis,  capit ;  cSpimus,  capitis,  c2piunt. 

Imp.  cSpiebam,  -iebas,  -iebSt ;  capiebamus,  -iebatis,  -iebant. 

FuT.  capiam,  -ies,  -iet ;  cSpiemus,  -ietis,  -lent. 

Perf.  cepI,  -isti,  -it;  cepimus,  -istis,  -erunt,  or  erS. 

Plup.  cSperam,  -eras,  -erat ;       ceperamiis,  -eratis,  -erant. 

FuT.  Perf.  cepero,  -eris,  erit ;  ceperimiis,  -eritis,  -erint. 

Subjunctive. 

Pres.  cSpiam,  -ias,  -iat ;  cSpiaraus,  -iatis,  -iant. 

Imp.  caperem,  -eres,  -eret ;  caperemus,  -eretis,  -erent. 

Perf.  ceperim,  -eris,  -erit;  ceperimiis,  -eritis,  erint. 

Plup.  cepissem,  -isses,  -isset ;  cepissemus,  -issetis,  -issent. 

Imperative. 
Pres.  c2pS ;  cSpite. 

FuT.  cSpito,  capitote, 

capito ;  cSpiunto. 

Infinitive.  Participle. 

Pres.  cSpere.  Pres.  capiens. 

Perf.  cepisse. 

FuT.  capturiis  esse.  Fut.     capturus. 

Gerund.  Supine. 

Gen.  cSpiendl. 

Baf.  cSpiendo. 

Ace.  capiendum.  Ace.    captiim. 

Abl.  capiendo.  Abl.     captu. 


THIRD   CONJUGATION.       VERBS    IN    10. 


95 


Pres.  Ind. 
capiSr, 


223.   PASSIVE  VOICE. 
CSlpior,  I  am  taken. — Stem,  cdp, 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

c^pi,  capttis  siim. 


Indicative    Mood. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Pres.  cSpior,  cSperis,  c2pitur ;      c5pimur,  capiminl,  cSpiuntur. 

Imp.  cfipieb2r,  -iebaris,  -iebatur ;  cSpiebSmur.  -iebamlnl,  -iebanttlr. 

Fut.  cSpiSr,  -ieris,  -ietur  \  cSpiemiir,  -ieminl,  -ientur. 

Perf.  captus  siim,  5s,  est ;  capti  sumiis,  estis,  sunt. 

Plup.  captus  erSm,  eras,  SrSt;       captI  eramus,  eratls,  erant. 

Fut.  Perf.  captus  ero,  Sris,  grit;  captI  erimiis,  eritis,  erunt. 

Subjunctive. 

Pres.  cSpiar,  -iaris,  -iatiir;  c2piamur,  -iaminl,  -iantur. 

Imp.  cSperer,  -ereris,  -eretur  ;  cSperemur,  -eremtnl,  -erentur. 

Perf.  captus  sim,  sis,  sit ;  capti  slmiis,  sitis,  sint. 

Plup.  captus  essem,  essgs,  esset ;  captI  essemus,  essetis,  essent 


Imperative. 


Pres. 
Fut. 


Pres. 
Perf. 
Fut. 


eSpgre ; 
cSpItor, 
cSpItor; 

Infinitive, 
c2pl. 

captus  essg. 
captiim  Irl. 


capiminl. 


capiuntSr. 

Participle. 

Perf.  captus. 
Ger.    cSpiendus. 


cS,pi6, 


224.  SYNOPSIS. 

I.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 
1.  Principal  Parts. 
capSrS,  cepi,  capttlm. 


2.  Present  System:  Stem,  cd,pi. 


INDICATIVE. 

SlTBJUNCnVK. 

IHPEB. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  cSpio 
hnp.   cfipiebam 
Fut.    cSpiam 

capiam 
cSperem 

cape 
cSpito 

cSpSro 

Gerundj  cSp 

iendl,  do 

etc. 

PABTICIPLB. 


cSpiens. 


96 


DEPONENT   VERBS. 


3.  Perfect  System:  Stem,  cep. 


INDICATIVE. 

Per/,  cepi 
Flup.  ceperSm 
F.  P.  cepero 


StrBJUNCTIVE. 

ceperim 
cepissem 


INFIWmVE. 

cepisse 


PAETICIPLI. 


4.  Supine  System:  Stem,  capt, 

^^'  I  I  Icapturus  esse  jcapturus. 

Supine^  captum,  captu. 

II.   PASSIVE   VOICE. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

capi5r,  capi,  captiis  siim. 

2.  Present  System:  Stem,  c&pi. 


Pres.  cSpior 
Imp.   capiebar 
Fut.    c5pi5r 


cSpiSr 
eaperer 


cSpere 
cSpitor 


capI 


Gerundive^  capiendus. 

3.   Supine  System  :   Stem,  capt. 


Perf.  captiis  siim 
Plup.  captus  eram 
F.  P.  captus  ero 
Fut 


captiis  sim 
captiis  essem 


captus  esse        |  captiis. 


captiim  In         | 


DEPONENT  VERBS. 
225,    Deponent  Verbs  have  in  general  the  forms  of  the 
Passive  Voice  with  the  signification  of  the  Active.     But 

1.  They  have  also  in  the  Active,  the  future  infinitive,  the  participles, 
gerund,  and  supine. 

2.  The  gerundive  generally  has  the  passive  signification ;  sometimes 
also  the  perfect  participle :  hortandus^  to  be  exhorted ;  expertuSy  tried. 

3.  The  Future  Infinitive  of  the  Passive  form  is  rare,  as  the  Active 
form  is  generally  used. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION. 

FIRST  COXJUGATION. 

226.   Hortor,  I  exhort. 

I.   Principal  Parts. 


hortdi 


hortari, 


hortatiis  siim. 


DEPONENT   VERBS. 


97 


II.   Presext  System 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  hortor^ 
Imp.    hortabSr 
Fut.    hortabor 


I      6CBJ0NCTIVK. 

jhorter 
jhortarSr 


IMPKK. 

hortare 


Stem,  horta. 

INFINITIVE. 

hortari 


hortat6r 
Gerund,  hortandi. 


PABTICIPUE. 

hortans. 


Perf.  hortatus  sum 
Plup.  hortatus  SrSm 
F.  P.  hortatus  ero 
Fut. 


Gerundive,  hortandiis 

III.    Supine  System  :   Stem,  hortdt. 

hortatus  esse 


hortatus  Sim 
hortatus  essem 


hortaturiis  essS 


hortatus. 
hortatQrus. 


Supine,  hortatum,  hortatu. 

SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

227.  Y^YQov,  I  fear, 

I.   Principal  Parts. 

v§re6r,  vSreii,  vei-ltiis  stim. 

II.   Present  System  :   Stem,  v^re. 


Pres.  vere6r 
Imp.    vSrgbar 
Fut.    verebor 


[vereSr 
vSrerer 


[vererS 

iv6r6tor 
Gerund,  verendi. 


vSrCri 


IvSrens. 

! 


Gerundive,  verendus. 
III.   Supine  System  :   Stem,  verit. 


Perf.  v^ritus  sum 
Plup.  v^ritus  erSm 
F.  P.  verltiis  ero 
Fut. 


veritiis  sTm 
veritus  essem 


veritus  esse 


vSriturus  essS 
Supine,  vSrftiim,  vSrltQ. 


veritus. 


verituriis. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 

228.  Sequor,  I  follow, 

I.   Principal  Parts. 

s§qu6r,  sequi,  sectittis  stlm. 

»  The  tenses  are  inflected  regularly  through  the  persons  and  numbers :  hortdr, 
kortdrls,  hortatir,  hortdrmlr,  hortdmlnl,  hortantur.  All  the  forms  In  this  synopsis 
have  the  active  meaning,  /  exhort,  I  was  exhorting,  etc.,  except  the  Gerundive,  which 
has  the  passive  force,  deserving  to  he  exhorted,  to  he  exltorted.  From  the  passive 
force  the  Gerundive  cannot  be  used  In  intransitive  Dep,  verbs,  except  in  an  imper- 
sonal sense.    Seo  801. 1. 


98 


DEPONENT   VERBS. 


II.   Present  System  :  Stem,  s^qu. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  sequor 
J/np.    sequebSr 
Fut.    sequar 


I     StrSJUNCTIVE, 

jsequSr 
isequerer 


IMPEB.     I         INFUnxiTE. 

sequere  isequl 


sequttorl 
Gerund,  sequendi. 


PAETICIPLB. 

sequens. 


III. 


Gerundive,  sequendiis. 
Supine  System  :  Stem,  secut. 


Perf.  sectitus  sura    isecutiis  sim 
Plup.  secutus  eram   secutus  essem 
F.  P.  sScutiis  ero 
Fut. 


secutus  esse      Isecutiis. 


secuturus  esse  |secuturus. 
Supine,  secutum,  secutu. 

229.   Patior,  I  suffer. 

I.   Principal  Parts. 
pS<ti6r,  pati,  passtis  siim. 

II.   Present  System  :   Stem,  pdti. 


Pres.  potior 
Imp.    pStieb2r 
Fut.    pStiar 


pStiar  [patere 

paterer  i 

IpStitor 
Gerund,  patiendi. 


pati 


pStiens. 


Perf.  passus  sum 
Plup.  passus  erjCm 
F.  P.  passus  ero 
Fut. 


Gerundive,  pStiendus. 

III.   Supine  System  :   Stem,  pass. 

passus  esse        passus. 


passus  Sim 
passus  essem 


passurus 
Supine,  passiim,  passu. 


blandior. 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 

230.   Blandior,  I  flatter. 

I.   Principal  Parts. 

blandiri,  blanditiis  stlm. 


II.   Present  System  :  Stem,  hlancU. 


Pres.  blandior 
Imp.    blandiebar 
Fut.    blandiSr 


|blandiSr 
blandlrer 


I  blandire]  blandiri 
Iblandl- 


!    tor 
Gerund,  blandiendl. 


blandiens- 


Gerundive,  blandlendus- 


PERIPHRASTIC   CONJUGATION. 

III.  Supine  System  :  Stem,  hlandit. 


INDIOATIVB. 

Perf.  blanditiis  sum 
Plup.  blandltus  SrSm 
F.  P.  blandltus  5r6 
Fv.t. 


BUBJUNCTIVE. 

blandltus  sIm 
blandltus  essem 


blandlturus 
esse 
Supine,  blandltum,  blandltu. 


INFINITIVE. 

blandltus  esso 


99 


PABTICIPLK. 

blandltus. 


blandituriis. 


PERIPHRASTIC   CONJUGATION. 

231.  The  Active  Periphrastic  Conjugation,  formed 
by  combining  the  Future  Active  Participle  with  sum,  de- 
notes an  intended  or  future  action  : 


Amaturus  sum,  Ta7n  about  to  love. 


INDICATIVE, 

amaturiis  sum  * 
Smaturus  erSra 
fimaturus  gro 
Smaturus  ful 
Smaturus  fuerSm 


Pres. 

Imp. 

Fut 

Perf. 

Plup. 

Fut.  Perf.  fimaturiis  fuero ' 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Smaturus  sim 
Smaturus  ess^m 

Smaturus  fuerlm 
Smaturus  fuissSm 


INFINITIVE- 

Smaturus  essg. 


Smaturus  fuiss3. 


232.  The  Passive  Periphrastic  Conjugation,  formed 
by  combining  the  Gerundive  with  sum,  denotes  necessity  or 
duty. 

Amandus  sum,  I  must  he  loved,'* 

Pres.  amandus  sum 

Imp.  Smandus  erSm 

Fut.  Smandus  ero 

Perf.  Smandus  fui 

Plup.  Smandus  fuerSra 

Fut.  Perf.  Smandus  fuSro 


Smandus  sim 
Smandus  essem 


Smandus  essS. 


Smandus  fuSr!m       j   Smandus  fuissS. 
Smandus  fuissgm 


233.  The  Periphrastic  Conjugation,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  terra,  in- 
cludes all  forms  compounded  of  participles  with  sum  ;  but  as  the  Pres.  Part, 
•with  6um  is  equivalent  to  the  Pres.  Ind.  {amans  est  =  amat),  and  is  accord- 
ingly seldom  used,  and  as  the  Perf.  Part,  with  sum  is,  in  the  strictest  sense, 
an  integral  part  of  the  regular  conjugation,  the  terra  Periphrastic  is  gener- 
ally liraited  to  the  two  conjugations  above  given. 

'  The  periphrastic  forms  are  inflected  regularly  through  the  persons  and  numbers: 
amatarus  mm,  es,  est.    The  Fut.  Perf.  is  exceedingly  rare. 
»  Or,  Idewrre  (ought)  to  be  toted. 


100  PECULIARITIES   IN   CONJUGATION. 

PECULIARITIES    IN    CONJUGATION. 

234.  Perfects  in  avi,  evi,  ivi,  and  the  tenses  derived 
from  them,  sometimes  drop  v  and  suffer  contraction  before 
S  and  r.     Thus 

A-i  and  a-e  become  a  :  amavisti  (amaisti),  amasii  ;  amavSram  (amae- 
ram),  amaram  ;  amavisse  (amaisse),  amasse. 

B-i  and  e-e  become  e :  nevi  (to  spin),  nevisii  (neisti),  nesii  ;  neverunt 
(neerunt),  nerunt. 

I-i  becomes  i:  audivisti  (audiisti),  audisti ;  audivissem  (audiissem), 
audissem. 

1.  Perfects  in  Ivi  sometimes  drop  v  in  any  of  their  forms,  but  generally 
■witbout  contraction,  except  before  « :  audlvi,  audit,  audiit,  audieram  ;  audi- 
visti, audiisti  or  audisti. 

2.  Perfects  in  avi. — The  perfects  of  nosco,  to  know,  and  moveo,  to  move, 
sometimes  drop  v  and  suffer  contraction  before  r  and  s :  navisti,  nosti. 

3.  Perfects  in  si  and  xi  sometimes  drop  is,  or  sis:  scripsisti,  scripsti ; 
dixisse,  dixe;  accessistis,  accestis. 

235.  Er^  for  erunt,  as  the  ending  of  the  third  Pers.  PI.  of  the 
Perf.  Ind.  Act.,  is  common  in  the  historians. 

The  form  in  ere  does  not  drop  v.    In  poetry  erunt  occurs. 

236.  R©  for  ris  in  the  ending  of  the  second  Pers.  of  the  Pass,  ia 
rare  in  the  Pres.  Indie. 

237.  3Dic,  due,  fac,  and  fer,  for  dice,  duce,  fUce,  and  fere,  are  the 
Imperatives  of  dico,  duco,facio,  and  fero,  to  say,  lead,  make,  and  bear. 

1.  Dice,  duce,  &nd/ace,  occur  in  poetry. 

2.  Compounds  follow  the  simple  verbs,  except  those  of  facio  which 
change  a  into  i :  con/ice. 

238.  Undus  and  undi  for  endus  and  endi  occur  as  the  endings  of 
the  Gerundive  and  Gerund  of  Conj.  III.  and  IV. :  dlcundm,  from  dico,  to 
say  ;  potiundus,  from  potior,  to  obtain. 

239.  Ancient  and  Rare  Forms. — ^Various  other  forms,  belonging  in 
the  main  to  the  earlier  Latin,  occur  in  the  poets,  even  of  the  classical 
period,  and  occasionally  also  in  prose,  to  impart  to  the  style  an  air  of 
antiquity  or  solemnity.     Thus  forms  in 

1.  Ibam  for  iebam,  in  the  Imp.  Ind.  of  Conj.  IV. :  saham  for  sciiham. 
See  Imp.  of  eo,  to  go,  295. 

2.  ibo,  ibor,  for  iam,  iar,  in  the  Fut.  of  Conj.  IV. :  servlho  for  ser- 
viam  ;  opp^ribor  for  opperiar.     See  Fut.  of  eo,  295. 

3.  im  for  am  or  em,  in  the  Pres.  Subj. :  edXm,  edls,  etc.,  for  ^d&m,  ds, 
etc. ;  duim  (from  duo,  for  do),  for  dem. — ^In  sim,  vSlim,  noUm,  mdlim  (204 
and  293),  im  is  the  common  ending. 


COMPARATIVE    VIEW    OF   COXJUGATIONS. 


101 


4.  asso,  easo,  and  so,  in  the  Fut.  Perf.,  and  assim,  essim,  and  aim, 
in  the  Perf.  Subj.  of  Conj.  I.  II.  III. :  faxo  (facso)  iovfecSro '  (from /acio) ; 
faxint  iov  fecSrim^ ;  ausim  for  ausus  sim  {for  ausSrim,  from  audeo).  Rare 
examples  are :  levasso  for  levavSro  ;  prohibesso  for  prohibuSro  ;  capso  for 
cepSro  ;  axo  for  egSro  ;  jusso  for  jxissSro  ;  occisit  for  occtdSrit  ;  taxis  for 
tetigiris.  , 

5.  to  and  mino  for  tor,  the  former  in  both  numbers,  the  latter  in  the 
singular,  of  the  Fut.  Imp.  Pass,  and  Dep. :  arbUrdio,  arbitrdmino  for  arbi- 
trator ;  utunto  for  utuntor. 

6.  ier  for  t  in  the  Pres.  Pass.  Infin. :  Smdri^r  for  amdrt ;  videriSr 
for  videri. 

240.  COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS. 
I.   Present   System. 


active  voicb 

. 

Coxj.  I. 

CONJ.  II. 

Conj.  III. 

CoNj.  lY. 

Stkm, 

Sma. 

mdfie. 

reff- 

audi. 

Ind,  Pres. 

Smo  =amao 

moneo 

rSgS 

audio 

amas* 

mones^ 

regis 

audis 

Imp. 

amabam 

mont'bam 

regebam 

audiebSra 

amabas 

monebas 

regebas 

audiebas 

Fut. 

amabo 

monebo 

regim 

audiSm 

amabis 

monebis 

reges 

audiea 

Sub.  Pres. 

amem=amaim 

moneara 

regam 

audiam 

ames 

moneas 

regas 

audias 

Imp. 

araarem 

monerem 

regerem 

audirem 

amares 

moneres 

regeres 

audlrea 

Imp.  Pres. 

ama 

mone 

rege 

audi 

Fut. 

amato 

moneto 

regitS 

audlto 

Inf.  Pres. 

amarS 

monerS 

reggre 

audlrg 

Par.  Pres. 

amans 

monens 

regens 

audiens 

Gerund, 

amandl. 

monendL 
PASSIVE  void 

regendi. 

audiendl. 

Ind.  Pres. 

amor 

moneor 

regor 

audior 

amarts  (rS) 

moneris  (re) 

regeris  (rS) 

audlris  (re) 

Imp. 

amabSr 

monebSr 

regebar 

audiebar 

amabaris  (rg) 

monebarTs(re) 

regebaris  (re) 

audiebaris(re) 

Fut. 

amabor 

monebSr 

regar 

audiSr 

amaberis  (re) 

moneberis  (re) 

regeris  (rg) 

audieris  (re) 

Sub.  Pres. 

amer  =amair 

moneSr 

regar 

audiSr 

ameris  (re) 

monearifs  (re) 

regaris  (re) 

audiaris  (re) 

Imp. 

amarer 

monerer 

regerer 

audirer 

amareris  (re) 

monereris(re) 

regereris  (re) 

audireris  (r5) 

Imp.  Pres. 

amarg 

mongrS 

regere 

audlrg 

Fut. 

amatSr 

monetor 

regitor 

auditor 

Inf.  Pres. 

amarl 

monerl 

regl 

audlri 

Ger. 

amandus. 

monendus. 

regendiis. 

audiendiis. 

»  Remember  that  r  in  iro  and  ^rim  was  originally  e.    See  85,  and  foot-note  2,  p.  70. 
9  In  the  same  manner  all  the  persons  of  both  numbers  may  be  compared. 


102 


COMPARATIVE   VIEW    OF   CONJUGATIONS. 


II.    Perfect    System, 


ACTIVE    VOICE 

CONJ.    I. 

CONJ.    II. 

CONJ.    III. 

Stem, 

amdv. 

monu. 

rex.           m 

Ind.  Perf. 

amavi 

monul 

rexi 

amavistl 

monuisti 

rexistl 

Plup. 

amaveram 

monuerSm 

rexeram 

amaveras 

monueras 

rexeras 

F.Perf 

.  amavero 

monuero 

rexero 

amaveris 

monueris 

rexeris 

Sub.  Perf. 

amaverim 

monuerim 

rexerim 

amaveris 

monueris 

rexens 

Plup. 

amavissem 

monuissem 

rexissem 

amavisses 

monuisses 

rexisses 

Inf.  Perf. 

amavisse. 

monuisse. 

rexisse. 

CONJ.    IV. 

audlv. 

audlvi 

audivisti 

audiveram 

audiveras 

audivero 

audlveris 

audiverira 

audiveris 

audivissSm 

audivisses 

audiviss8. 


III.    Supine    System, 


active  voice 

Stem, 

Umat. 

monit. 

rect. 

audit 

Inf.   Put. 

amaturus  esse 

moniturusesse 

recturus  esse 

audlturus  ess< 

Par.  Put. 

amaturiis 

monituriis 

recturus 

auditurus 

Supine, 

amatiim. 

monitum. 

rectum. 

audltum. 

passive  voice. 

Ind.  Perf. 

amatus  sum 

monitus  sum 

rectus  sum 

auditus  sum 

amatus  es 

monitus  es 

rectus  es 

auditus  es 

Plup. 

amatus  erSm 

monitus  eram 

rectus  eram 

auditus  eram 

amatus  eras 

monitus  eras 

rectus  eras 

auditus  eras 

F.Perf.  am  atusero 

monitus  ero 

rectus  ero 

auditus  ero 

amatus  eris 

monitus  eris 

rectus  eris 

auditus  eris 

Sub.  Perf. 

amatus  sim 

monitus  sim 

rectus  sim 

auditus  sim 

amatus  sis 

monitus  sis 

rectus  sis 

auditus  sis 

Plup. 

amatus  essem 

monitus  essem 

rectus  essem 

auditus  essem 

amatus  esses 

monitus  esses 

rectus  esses 

auditus  esses 

Inf.  Perf. 

amatus  esse 

monitus  esse 

rectus  esse 

auditus  esse 

Put. 

amatum  iri 

monitum  iri 

rectum  Iri 

audltum  iri 

Par.  Perf. 

amatus. 

monitus. 

rectus. 

auditus. 

1.  From  this  Synopsis  it  will  be  seen  : 

1)  That  the  Four  Conjugations  differ  from  each  other  only  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  Principal  Parts  and  in  the  endings  of  the  Present  System. 

2)  That  even  these  differences  have  been  produced  in  the  main  by  the 
union  of  different  final  letters  in  the  various  stems  with  one  general  sys- 
tem of  endings. 

3)  That  the  Four  Conjugations  arc  thus  only  varieties  of  one  general 
system  of  inflection. 


ANALYSIS   OF   VERBAL   ENDINGS.  103 

ANALYSIS  OF  VERBAL  ENDINGS. 

241.  The  endings  which  are  appended  to  the  stems  in 
the  formation  of  the  various  parts  of  the  finite  verb  contain 
three  distinct  elements  : 

1.  The  Tense-Sign  :  ba  in  Uma-ba-m,  rSg-i-bd-a. 

2.  The  Mood- Vowel  :  a  in  mdne-a-s,  rSg-Os. 

3.  The  Personal  Ending  :  «  in  mdne-ds,  r^ff-ds. 

I.   Tense-Signs. 

242.  The  Present  is  without  any  tense-sign :  itmd-s. 
So  also  the  Future  *  in  Conj.  ILL  and  IV. 

243.  The  other  tenses '  have  the  following 


Tense-Signs. 

Ind.    Imp. 

ba :         Sma-ba-s :        reg-g-ba-s. 

FCT. 

bi:         Sma-bl-s:         m5ne-bJ-s. 

Plup. 

ffra :       amav-6ra-s :    rex-8ra-s. 

F.  Perf 

,Sri:        Smav-en-s:     audlv-6r!-s. 

Sdbj.  Imp. 

j  rSg-6rS-s,  for  rSg-era-I-s.' 
(  ama-re-s,  for  ama-Sra-I-s.' 

Perf. 

M:        rex-Sri-s:         audlv-gn-s. 

Plup. 

issa :      rex-isse-s,  for  rex-issa-I-s.* 

IL  Mood-Signs. 

244.  The  Indicative  has  no  special  sign  to  mark  the 
Mood. 

245.  The  Subjunctive  has  a  long  vowel — 3,  e,*  or  i '' — 

>  This  Future  Is  in  form  a  Preseat  Subjunctive,  though  it  has  assumed  in  ftill  the 
force  of  the  Future  Indicative.    See  foot-note  5  below. 

'  These  are  all  compounded  with  the  tenses  of  mm :  Thus  in  amd-ham 
and  amd-bd,  the  ending  bam  =  erdm  is  the  Imperfect  from  the  stem  bliu^ 
the  old  form  of /«  in  fui,  and  bd  =  era  is  the  Future  from  the  same  stem. 
In  amdv-erdm  and  aindv-ero^  the  endings  eram  and  era  are  the  Imperfect  and 
Future  of  mm  from  the  stem  es.  In  reg-erem  the  ending  erem  is  for  hem^ 
the  ancient  form  of  essem  ;  in  rcx-crlm^  trim  is  for  him  —  sim,  and  in  rex^ 
usem,  issem  is  for  essem. 

•  See  foot-note  5  below. 

•  This  e  comes  from  a-i,  of  which  the  i  alone  is  the  true  Mood-Sign. 

•  The  Latin  Subjunctive  contains  the  forms  of  two  distinct  Moods,— the 
Subjunctive  with  the  sign  J,  and  the  Optative  with  the  sign  i,  sometimes 


104  PERSONAL   ENDINGS. 

before    the   Personal  Endings  :    mdne-d-mtis,    dm-e-mUs, 
s-i-mHs.     But 

1.  This  vowel  is  shortened  before  final  m  and  t,  and  sometimes  in  the 
Perfect  before  s,  mus  and  its :  moneUm,  Umet,  sU,  fuSris,  dmaverimus^ 
amdverttis. 

246.  The  Imperative  is  distinguished  by  its  Personal 
Endings.     See  247,  3. 

III.  Personal  Endings. 

247.  The  Personal  Endings  are  formed  from  ancient 
pronominal  stems,  and  have,  accordingly,  the  force  of  pro- 
nouns in  English.     They  are  as  follows  : 


PERSON. 

ACT. 

PASS. 

MEANING. 

Si7ig.^    First  Fers., 

m, 

r, 

/. 

Second, 

s, 

ris, 

thou,  you. 

Third, 

t, 

tur, 

he,  she,  it. 

Flur}   First, 

mils, 

miir, 

we. 

Second, 

tis, 

mini,  3 

you. 

Third, 

nt, 

ntur, 

they. 

contained  in  e  for  a-l.  Thus :  Subjunctive,  mone-d-mus,  audi-d-tls ;  Opta- 
tive, s-i-mus,  rexer^-tis,  am-e-mus  for  ama-i-mus,  reger-e-s,  for  regera-l-s. 
The  Subjunctive  and  Optative  fonns,  originally  distinct,  have  in  the  Latin 
been  blended  into  one  Mood,  called  the  Subjunctive,  and  are  used  mthout 
any  dilFerence  of  meaning.  Thus  the  Mood  in  mone-d-mus^  a  Subjunctive 
form,  has  precisely  the  same  force  as  in  am-l-mus,  an  Optative  form. 

The  1st  Pers.  Sing,  of  Futures  in  am — regam,  audidm,  etc. — is  in  form 
a  Subjunctive,  while  the  other  Persons,  reges,  et,  etc.,  audies,  U,  etc.,  are  in 
form  Optatives. 

1  In  the  Singular  these  Personal  Endings  contain  each,  (1)  in  the  Active 
Voice  one  pronominal  stem,  m,  I ;  s,  thou,  you ;  ^,  he ;  and  (2)  in  the  Pas- 
sive two  such  stems — one  denoting  the  Person,  and  the  other  the  Passive 
Voice :  thus  in  the  ending  tur,  t  (tu)  denotes  the  person,  and  r,  the  voice. 
B  of  the  first  person  stands  for  m-r. 

-  In  the  Plural  the  Endings  contain  each,  (1)  in  the  Active  two  pronomi- 
nal stems :  mu-s  =  m  (mu)  and  s,  I  and  you,  i.  e.  we ;  tis  -  t  (the  original 
form  for  s,  thou,  as  seen  in  tu,  thou)  and  s,  =  s  and  s,  thou  and  thou,  i.  e. 
you ',  nt  =  n  and  t,  he  and  he,  i.  e.  they,  and  (2)  in  the  Passive  three  such 
stems — the  third  denoting  the  Passive  voice :  thus  in  ntur,  nt  (ntu)  de- 
notes the  person  and  number,  and  r,  the  voice. 

3  Mini  was  not  originally  a  Personal  Ending,  but  the  Plural  of  a  Passive 
Participle,  not  otherwise  used  in  Latin,  but  seen  in  the  Greek  (uevoi). 
Amdmmi,  originally  amdminl  estU,  means  you  are  loved,  as  amdtl  estis 
means  you  have  been  loved. 


PERSONAL   ENDINGS.  106 


Examples. 

amaba-m, 

amabi-r, ; 

rSgS, 

reg5-r. 

amaba-s, 

amaba-rls ; 

regt-s, 

regS-ris. 

amuba-t, 

amaba-tur; 

regi-t, 

regl-tiir. 

amaba-mus, 

amaba-mur; 

regi-mus, 

regi-mur. 

amaba-tis, 

amabu-niiai ; 

regi-tis, 

regi-minl. 

amaba-nt, 

amaba-ntur ; 

regu-nt, 

regu-ntiir. 

1.  Omitted.— The  ending  m  i3  omitted  in  the  Pres.,^  Perf.,  and  Put. 
Perf.  Ind.  of  all  the  conjugations,  and  in  the  Put.  Ind.  of  Conj.  I.  and  II. 
Accordingly  in  those  forma  the  Pirst  Person  ends  in  the  connecting  voAvel 
0 :  arm,  amdbb,  amdvSro  ;  except  in  the  Perfect,  where  it  ends  in  % :  &mavl. 

2.  The  Endings  of  the  Perfect  Act.  are  peculiar.  They  are  the  same 
as  in/wl; 

SINGULAR.  PLCRAL. 

First  Pers.,  fu-I ; «  fu-J-miis. 

Second,  fu-is-ti;  fu-is-tfe. 

^lird,  fu-lf-t;  fu-eru-nt,  or  ere. 

8.  The  Imperative  Mood  has  the  following  Personal  Endings : 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Sing.  Plur.  Sing.  Plur. 

Pres.  Second  Pers.,    — \  te ;  r5,  mtnL 

Fut.   Second,  to,  tote ;  t5r. 

Third,               to,  ntS;  t6r,  nt6r. 

248.  Infinitives,  Participles,  Gerunds,  and  Supines,  are 
formed  with  the  following  endings  : 


ACTIVE. 

PASSIVE. 

Infinitive  Present, 

re  (ere), 

rl  (gri),  I, 

Perfect, 

isse, 

us  esse. 

Future, 

urus  esse, 

iim  Irl. 

*  Except  in  sum,  I  am,  and  inquam,  I  say. 

'  Jfis  omitted  in  the  first  person,  and  ti,  an  ancient  form  of  w, «,  is  used 
in  the  second.  Otherwise  the  endings  themselves  are  regular,  but  in  the 
second  person  ti  and  tis  are  preceded  by  is,  and  emut  m  fu-erunt,  is  for 
esunt,  the  full  form  for  sunt.  Thns  fu-erunt  is  a  compound  offu  and  esunt 
for  sunt.  Fu-idis,  in  like  manner,  may  be  a  compound  oi  fu  and  istis  for 
estls,  &Tidfu-istt,  offu  and  isti  for  estl  for  es. 

'  In  the  Present  the  ending  is  dropped  in  the  Sing.  Act.,  and  the  end- 
ings te  and  re  are  shortened  from  tis  and  ris  of  the  Indicative  by  dropping 
8  and  changing  final  t  into  e.  See  28,  1.  In  the  Future  to  of  the  2d  pers. 
corresponds  to  ti  of  the  Perfect  Ind.,  to  and  ntd  of  the  3d  pers.  to  t  and  nt. 
Tor  and  ntor  add  r  to  td  and  ntS.     Toff-  doubles  the  pronominal  stem. 


106  FORMATION    OF    STEMS. 

ACTIVE,  PASSIVl. 

Participle  Present,        ns. 

Future,        turus. 

Perfect,  tiis. 

Gerundive,  ndus. 

Gerund,  ndl. 

Supine,  um,  u. 

FORMATIOiT    OF    STEMS. 

249.  The  three  Special  Stems  are  all  formed  from  the 
Verb  Stem. 

I.    Present   Stem. 

250.  The  Present  Stem  is  generally  the  same  as  the 
Verb  Stem.  Thus  dmaj  mdne,  r^^,  and  audi,  are  at  once 
Present  Stems  and  Verb  Stems. 

251.  The  Present  Stem,  when  not  identical  with  the 
Verb  Stem,  is  formed  from  it  by  one  of  the  following 
methods  : 

1.  By  inserting  n — changed  to  m  before  b  or  p  : 

Frango ;  stem,  frag ;  pres.  stem,  frang ;  to  break. 
Fundo ;  fud ;  fund ;  to  pour. 

Rumpo ;  rup ;  rump ;  to  burst. 

2.  By  adding  n,  especially  to  vowel  stems  : 

Sino ;       stem,  si ;  pres.  stem,  sin  ;  to  permit. 

Sperno ;  sper,  spre ;  spern ;  to  spurn. 

Temno ;  tem ;  temn ;   to  despise. 

3.  By  adding  a,  e,  or  i  : 

Juvo;     st^m,  juv;  pres.  stem,  juva;  to  assist. 
Video ;              vid ;  vide ;  to  see. 

CSpio ;  cap ;  capi ;  to  take. 

Vincio ;  vine ;  vinci ;  to  bind. 

Haurio;  haur/orhaus;  hsiuri ;  to  draw. 

4.  By  adding  sc, — to  consonant  stems  isc: 

Veterasco ;  stem,  Vetera ;  pres.  stem,  veterase ;  to  grow  old. 
Caiesco  ;  cale  ;  calesc ;  to  become  warm. 

Cresco ;  ere ;  cresc  ;  to  increase. 

Apiscor ;  ap ;  apisc ;  to  obtain. 

Nanciscor ;  nac ;  naneisc  ;^  to  obtain. 

5.  By  adding  t : 

Plecto  ;  stem,  plec ;  pres.  stem,  plect ;  to  braid. 
1  xV  is  inserted  and  isc  added.    See  1  above. 


FORMATION   OF   STEMS.  107 

6.  By  doubling  the  final  consonant — 1,  r,  or  t: 

Pello ;     stem,  pel ;  prea.  stem,  pell ;  to  drive. 
Curro ;  cur ;  curr ;  to  run. 

Mitto ;  mit ;  mitt ;  to  send. 

7.  By  reduplication: 

Gigno ;  stem,  gSn  ;  pres.  stan,  gTgen,  gign ;  to  beget. 
Sisto;  8ta;  sista,  sist;  to  place. 

Sero ;  sa ;  sisa,  sis,  ser ;  to  sow. 

II.  Perfect   Stems. 

B52.  Vowel  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  by  adding  v: 

Amo  (a-o),  Smavi,  stem,  Sma  ;    perf.  stem,  amSv ;  to  love. 
Deleo,         delevi,  dele ;  delev ;  to  destroy. 

Audio,         audlvi,  audi ;  audiv ;  to  hear. 

1.  Most  stems  in  e  and  a  few  in  a  drop  the  final  vowel  and  change  v  to  u. 

M.6neo,  monui ;         stem,  m6ne ;  perf.  stem,  m6nev,  m6nu ;  to  advise. 
Ct^po  (a-o),  crepui ;  crepa ;  crupav,  crcpu ;  to  creak. 

2.  In  verbs  in  uo,  the  Perfect  Stem  is  the  same  as  the  Verb  Stem : 

Acuo,  &cui ;  stem,  acu ;  perf.  stem,  acu ;  to  sharpen. 

253.  Many  Liquid  Stems,  and  a  few  others,  form  the 

Perfect  Stem  by  adding  u: 

Alo,  Slui ;  stem,  21 ;       P^f-  stem,  alu ;  to  nourish. 

FrSmo,  fremui ;  frem ;  frSmu ;  to  rage. 

Teneo,  tenui ;  ten ;  tenu ;  to  hold. 

Duceo,  docui ;  doc ;  dScu ;  to  teach. 

254.  Most  Consonant  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  by 

adding  s: 

Carpo,  carpsi ;    stem,  carp ;  perf.  stem,  carps  ;  to  plxick. 
Rego,  rexi ;  reg ;  rex=reg3  ;  to  rule. 

Scrlbo,  scripsi ;  scrib ;  scrips=scribs ;  to  write. 

255.  A  few  Consonant  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem 
without  any  sufBx  whatever.     But  of  these 

I.  Some  reduplicate  the  stem :  * 

CSno,  cecini ;  stem,  can  ;  perf.  stem,  cocin  ;  to  sing. 

1.  The  Eeduplication  consists  of  the  initial  consonant  (or  consonants) 
of  the  stem  with  the  following  vowel,  or  with  e,— generally  with  the  follow- 
ing vowel,  if  that  vowel  is  e,  i,  o,  or  u,  otherwise  with  e  ;  see  examples 
under  273, 1. 

2.  The  SxEM-yowKL  a  is  generally  weakened  to  i,  sometimea  to  « ;  Ciido^ 
cecldi  (for  cecadi),  to  fall. 

»  Sec  list,  278, 1. 


108  FORMATION    OF   STEMS. 

8.  Reduplication  with  S^  or  St.— In  verbs  beginning  v.'ith  gp  or  st^  the 
reduplication  retains  both  consonants,  but  the  stem  drops  the  s  :  spondee^ 
spopondi  (for  spospondi),  to  promise  ;  sto,  steti  (for  stesti)^  to  stand. 

4.  In  Compounds  the  reduplication  is  generally  dropped,  but  it  is  retained 
in  the  compounds  of  Jo,  to  giv^e ;  sto^  to  stand ;  disco^  to  learn ;  posco^  to 
demand ;  and  sometimes  in  the  compotmds  of  curro^  to  run :  re-s^pondeo, 
respondi  (redup.  dropped),  to  answer ;  circum-do,  circum-dedi  (redup.  re- 
tained) ;  circum-sto^  circum-stUi,  to  encircle.  The  compounds  of  do  which 
are  of  the  third  conjugation  change  e  of  the  reduplication  into  i:  ad-dOy 
ad-didi  (for  ad-dedi),  to  add. 

II.  Some  lengthen  the  Stem-Vowel:* 

Emo,  6mi ;         stem,  Sm  ;    per/,  stem,  em  ;  to  buy. 
Ago,  egi ;  Sg ;  6g ;  to  drive. 

Ab-Jgo,  2b-egi ;  Sbig ;  abeg ;  to  drive  away. 

1.  The  stem-vowels  a  and  (in  compounds)  *  generally  become  ?,  as  in  agp 
and  ab-igo. 

III.  Some  retain  the  stem  unchanged:* 

Ico,  Ici ;      stem,  Ic ;    perf.  stem,  Ic ;  to  strike. 
Viso,  visi ;  vis ;  vis ;  to  visit. 

1.  Of  the  few  verbs  belonging  to  this  class,  nearly  all  have  the  stem- 
vowel  long,  either  by  nature  or  by  position. 

III.    Supine    Stem. 

256.  Vowel  Stems  and  most  Consonant  Stems  fonu 
the  Supine  Stem  by  adding  t : 

Amo  =  Smao,  amStum  ;  stem,  Sma,  siip.  st.  Smut ;      to  love. 

Deleo,  deletum ;  dele,  delgt ;      to  destroy. 

Moneo,  monitiim;         mone,'  monit;'  to  advise. 

Audio,  audltiim ;  audi,  audit ;      to  hear. 

Dice,  dictum ;  die,  diet ;        to  say. 

Carpo,  carptum;  carp,  carpt;      to  pluck. 

257.  Stems  in  d  and  t,  most  stems  in  1  and  r,  and  a 

few  others,  add  S  to  the  Verb  Stem. 

Laedo,  laesum  ;  stem,  laed,  sup.  st.  laes  ^  {for  laeds) ;      to  hurt. 

Plaudo,  plausum ;         plaud,  plaus  (for  plauds) ;  to  applaud. 

Video,  visum;  vid,  vis      (/or  vids) ;       to  see. 

Verto,  versum  ;  vert,  vers  ^  [for  verts) ;     to  turn. 

Vello,4  vulsum;  vol,  vuls^  (/or  vols) ;       to  pluck. 

Verro  *  versum ;  ver,  vers ;  to  brush. 


»  See  lists,  2T3,  II.  and  III.  »  See  213,  foot-note. 

t  See  36.  <  8e«  251,  6.  »  See  28,  and  293, 1. 


euphonic  changes  in  stems.  10^ 

258.  Euphonic  Changes  in  Stems. 

I.    Befoee  S  in  the  Perfect  and  Supine  Stems. 

1.  A  Gdttural — c,  g,  qu*  or  h — generally  unites  with  the  s  and 
forms  X,  but  is  dropped  after  1  or  r  :  duco^  duzi  (ducsi),  dux,  to  lead ;  r^go, 
rexi  (regsi),  rex,  to  rule ;  coquo,  coxi  (coqusi),  to  cook  ;  tralio,  traxi  (trahsi), 
to  draw;  algeo,  alsi  (algsi),  ah,  to  be  cold ;  mergo,  mersi  (mergsi),  to  dip ; 
mtUceo,  muhum  (mulcsum),  muls,  to  caress ;  flgo,  fxum  (figsum),  to 
fasten. 

2.  A  Dental— d  or  t— is  generally  dropped,  but  sometimes  assimi- 
lated :  claudo,  clausi  (claudsi),  clam,  clausum  (claudsum),  daus,  to  close ; 
mitto,^  mlsi  (mitsi),  missum  (mitsum),  to  send  ;  cldo,  ccssi  (cedsi),  cessum 
(cedsum),  to  yield. 

3.  B  is  changed  to  p  :  scrlbo,  sa-ipsi  (scribsi),  scrips,  to  write ;  nubo, 
nttpsi,  to  marry. 

4.  M  is  sometimes  assimilated,  and  sometimes  strengthened  with  p : 
prSmo,  prcssi  (premsi),  press,  prcssum  (prcmsum),  to  press  ;  sumo,  sumpsi 
(sumsi),  to  take. 

6.  S— changed  to  r  in  the  Present — is  sometimes  dropped :  haereo 
(haeseo),  haesi  (haessi),  hoes,  haesum  (haessum),  to  stick. 

II.   Before  T  in  the  Supine  Stem. 

1.  A  Guttural — g,  qu '  or  h — becomes  c :  r^go,  rectum  (regtum),  reci, 
to  rule ;  cSquo,  coctum  (coqutum),  to  cook  ;  traho,  tractum  (trahtum),  to 
draw. 

2.  B  is  changed  to  p,  as  in  the  Perfect :  scrlbo,  scriptum  (scribtum), 
to  write. 

8.  M  is  strengthened  with  p :  sumo,  sumpsi  (sumsi),  sumptum  (sum- 
turn),  to  take. 

4.  V  is  generally  changed  into  its  corresponding  vowel,  u :  volvo, 
vblutum  (volvtum),  to  roll.  If  a  vowel  precedes,  a  contraction  takes 
place — a-u  becoming  au,  rarely  6 ;  o-u  becoming  3,  and  u-u  becoming  "5: 
lAvo,  lavtum,  lautum,  latum,  to  wash  ;  nioveo,  movtum,  moutum,  mOtum, 
to  move  ;  juvo,  juvtum,  juutum,  jutum,  to  assist. 


*  Sometimes  also  gu  •'  exsiingvo,  exatinxi,  exstinctum,  to  extinguish.  Vivo,  vixi, 
victum,  to  live;  fluo,  fluxi,\fluxum,  to  flow;  and  struo,  struxi,  structum,  to  build, 
form  the  Perfect  and  Supine  from  stems  in  «  for  pti. 

'  Stem  mit  (251,  6) ;  in  misi.  t  is  dropped,  bat  in  mitaum  assimilated. 


110 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   VERBS. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   VERBS.* 
FIRST  CONJUGATION. 

Class  I. — Stem  in  a:   Perfect  in  vi  or  ui. 

I.  Stem  in  a:   Perfect  ix  vi. 

259.   Principal  Parts  in  :   o,     Sre,     5vi,     atum. 

These  endings  belong  to  most  verbs  of  this  conjugation.     The  follow- 


ing  are  examples : 

DOno, 

don^re, 

donavi, 

donatum, 

to  bestow. 

Honoro, 

honorSre, 

honoravi, 

honoratum, 

to  honor. 

Libero, 

liberare, 

liberavi, 

liberatum, 

to  free. 

N5mino, 

nominare, 

nominavi, 

nominatum, 

to  name. 

Pugno, 

pugnare, 

pugnavi, 

pugnatum, 

to  Jiff ht. 

Sp6ro, 

sperare, 

speravi, 

speratum, 

to  hope. 

Voco, 

vocare, 

vocavi, 

vocatum, 

to  call. 

II.   Stem  m  a:   Perfect  m  ui. 


260. 

Principal 

Parts  in  :  o, 

are,      ui, 

itTim." 

CrSpo, 

crepare, 

crepui, 

crepitum. 

to  creak. 

Incripo, 

dre,  ui  (avi),  \tum  (ditrni) ;  discr^po,  are,  ui  (uvi) 

Ciibo, 

cubare, 

cubui, 

cubitum, 

to  recline.^ 

D6mo, 

domare, 

domui, 

domttum, 

to  tame. 

Eneco, 

gnecare, 

enecui, 

enectum, 

to  kill.* 

Frtco, 

fricSre, 

frieui, 

(  frictum, 
(  fricatum, 

to  rub. 

MTco, 

mmlco, 

micare 
are,  a/ci  (ui),  a 

•     • 

to  glitter. 

Itum ; 

micui, 
•  emlco,  are,  ui, 

,  dtum. 

^  The  Perfect  Formation  is  selected  as  the  special  basis  of  this  classification,  because 
the  irregTilarities  of  the  other  principal  parts  are  less  important  and  can  be  readily  as- 
sociated with  this  formation.  In  this  classification  the  regular  or  usual  formation  is 
first  given  with  a  few  examples,  then  complete  lists  (1)  of  all  the  simple  verbs  which 
deviate  from  this  formation,  and  (2)  of  such  compounds  as  de\iate  in  any  important 
particular  from  their  simple  verbs. 

2  Note  deviations  in  the  Supine.  The  ending  ui  may  have  been  formed  from  avi 
by  dropping  a  and  changing  v  to  u,  and  the  ending  \tum  from  atum  by  weakening 
a  to  i.  See  213,  foot-note.  But  in  some  of  these  verbs  the  Perfect  and  Supine  may 
be  formed  from  consonant  stems.  Thus  sdnui,  sdnltum  may  be  formed  from  the 
liquid  stem  adn,  in  sdno,  sonire,  like  dlui,  dlitum  from  the  liquid  stem  dl  in  dlo,  dlire, 
to  nourish.    See  253. 

3  Compounds  which  insert  m,  as  accunibo,  etc.,  are  of  Conj.  III.    See  275, 1. 

*  The  simple  nico  is  regular,  and  even  in  the  corapoimd  the  forms  in  Q/ei  and  dtum 
occur. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   VERBS.  Ill 

pHCre,  |PJi-;..  jPiLtZ'.  "'f^- 

IXiphco,  micUlprico,  riprico,  and  supplico,  are  regular:  are,  <tt)t,  afwrn. 

Seco,  secure,  secui,  sectum,  to  cut. 

Participle,  secdtdrus. 

Sono,  sonSre,  sonui,  sonJtum,  to  sound. 

Participle,  sondturus.    Most  compounds  want  Sup.    RiaOno  has  Perf.  reaona/ci. 

Tono  tonare,  tonui,  (tonttum),  to  thunder. 

Voto,  vetare,  vetui,  vetitum,  to  forbid. 

1.  Poto,  are^  dvi,  dtum,  to  drinli,  has  alsopo^Mm  in  the  supine. 

2.  The  Passive  Participles  cSndtus  and  jUrdtua  (cSiio,  to  dine,  and  jtZro,  to  swear) 
are  active  In  signification,  hcuoing  dined,  etc.  Fdliu,  from  poto,  is  also  sometimes  active. 

Class  II. — ^Perfect  in  i. 
I.  Perfect  in  1:  with  Reduplication. 

261.  Principal  Parts  in  o,       Sre,       i,       tum. 

Do,  dare,  dedi,  datum,  to  give. 

Sto,  stare,  steti,  statum,  to  stand. 

1.  In  do  the  characteristic  a  is  short  by  exception:  ddbam,  ddbo,  ddrem,  etc. 
Four  compounds  of  do—circumdo,  pessumdo,  sdtisdo,  and  vlnumdo—tao  conjugated 
like  the  simple  verb;  the  rest  are  dissyUabic  and  of  the  Third  Conj.  (273, 1.)  The 
basis  of  the  dissyllabic  compounds  is  do,  to  place,  originally  distinct  from  do,  to  give. 

2.  Ck)mpounds  of  sto  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  if  the  first  part  is  a  dis- 
syllable, otherwise  they  take  atlti  for  stiti  :  adsto,  adetdre,  adstiti,  adstdtum.  Ditto 
wants  Perf.  and  Sup. 

II.  Perfect  in  i:  "with  Lengthened  Stem- Vowel. 

262.  Principal  Parts  in  :  o,  5re,  i,  5tlim,  or  turn. 

Juvo,  juvare,  juvi,  jutum,  to  assist. 

Participle  jiit)<i/jZrtt«,  but  in  compounds  ^afflriM  is  also  used. 

C  lavatum, 
Liivo,  lavare,  ISvi,  -^  lautum,  to  wash. 


1.  In  poetry  Idvo  is  sometimes  of  Conj.  III. :  Idvo,  lavare,  Idvi,  etc. 

2.  lajato  and  Id/co,  the  stems  arc  juc  and  lav,  strengthened  in  the  Present  to  Jura 
and  lava.    See  251,  8 ;  also  253,  II.  4. 

263.  Deponent  Verbs. 
In  this  conjugation  deponent  verbs  are  entirely  regular. 


Conor, 

conari, 

conatus  sum, 

to  endeavor. 

Hortor, 

hortari. 

hortatus  sum, 

to  exhort. 

Mlror, 

mirftri, 

mirfttus  sum, 

to  admire. 

112 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   VEEBS. 


SECOND   CONJUGATION. 

Class  I. — Stem  ix  e:  Perfect  in  vi  or  ui. 

I.  Stem  in  e :   Peefeot  in  vi, 

264.  Principal  Parts  in:  eo,     ere,     evi,     etum.* 

These  endings  belong  to  the  following  verbs : 
Compleo,  complete,         complevi,         completum,      to  fill. 

So  other  compounds  of  pleo;  as  expleo,  impleo. 
Deleo,  delere,  delevi,  deletum,  to  destroy. 

Fleo,  flere,  flevi,  fletum,  to  weep. 

Neo,  nere,  nevi,  netum,  to  spin. 

1.  Ab6leOy  dbolere,  aboUvi,  abolltum,  to  destroy,  is  compounded  of  db  and  ole« 
(not  used).  The  other  compounds  of  oleo  generally  end  in  e«co,  and  are  of  the  third 
conjugation.    See  dbdlesco,  277. 

2.  Vieo,  viere,  vieiiim,  to  weave,  bend,  is  rare,  except  in  the  participle  vietus. 

II.  Stem  in  e:   Pekfeot  in  ui. 

265.  Principal  Parts  in:  eo,       ere,       ui,       itum. 

These  endings  belong  to  most  verbs  of  this  conjugation.  The 
following  are  examples : 


Debeo, 

HSbeo, 

Moneo, 

Noceo, 

Pareo, 

Placeo, 

Taceo, 


debere, 

habere, 

monere, 

nocere, 

parere, 

placere, 

tacere, 


debui, 

habui, 

monui, 

nocui, 

parui, 

placui, 

tacui, 


debitum, 

habitum, 

monituiD, 

nocitum, 

paritum, 

placitum, 

taciturn, 


to  owe. 
to  have, 
to  advise, 
to  hurt, 
to  obey, 
to  please, 
to  he  silent. 


2QQ.  Supine  wanting. — Many  verbs  with  the  Perfect  in  ui,  want 
the  Supine.     The  following  are  the  most  important : 


Candco,  to  shine. 
Egeo,  to  want. 
Emineo,  to  stand  forth. 
Floreo,  to  hloom. 
Frondeo,  to  hear  leaves. 
Horreo,  to  shudder. 
Lateo,  to  he  hid. 


Madeo,  to  he  wet. 
Niteo,  to  shine. 
Oleo,  to  smell. 
Palleo,  to  he  pale. 
Pateo,  to  be  open. 
Kubeo,  to  he  red. 
Sileo,  to  be  silent. 


Sorbeo,  to  swallow. 
Splendeo,  to  shine. 
Studeo,  to  study. 
Stupeo,  to  he  amazed. 
TImeo,  to  fear. 
Torpeo,  to  he  torpid. 
Vireo,  to  be  green. 


267.  Perfect  and  Supine  wanting. — Some  verbs,  derived  mostly 
from  adjectives,  want  both  Perfect  and  Supine, 
most  important : 

Albeo,  to  he  white. 
Galveo,  to  he  hold. 


Caneo,  to  he  gray. 
Flaveo,  to  he  yellow. 


Hebeo,  to  he  hlunt. 
Humeo,  to  he  moist. 


'  We  class  evi  and  etum,  though  belonging  to  but  few  verbs,  with  the  regular 
formations,  because  they  are  the  full  and  original  forms  from  which  the  more  common 
ui  and  Itum  are  derived.    See  218,  foot-note. 


SECOXD   CONJUGATION. 


113 


Immlneo,  to  threaten, 
Lacteo,  to  tuck. 


Maereo,  to  be  tad. 
Polleo,  to  h€  powerful. 


Renldeo,  to  shine. 
Squaleo,  to  he  filthy. 


Class  II. — Stem  in  c,  n,  r,  or  s  :  Perfect  in  ui. 

Present  Stem  adds  e.     See  251,  3. 
268.  Principal  Parts  in:   eo,  ere,  ui,  turn,  or  sum. 

These  endings  belong  to  the  following  verbs : 

Censeo,  censere,  censui,  censum,  to  think. 

Perf.  Part  census  and  ctnsltxis.—Percenseo  wants  Sup, :  Hcenseo  has  recm^um 
and  recentitum. 
D6ceo,  docere,  docui,  doctum,  to  teach. 

Migceo,  miscere,  miscui,  -J  jv,: j+mJ  'o  ^"J- 

Teneo,  tenSre,  tenui,  tentum,  to  hold. 

Bitlneo,  ere,  ui,  detentum;  so  obtineo  and  ritlneo;  other  compounds  seldom 
have  Sup. 
Torreo,  torreie,  torrui,  tostum,  to  roast. 

Class  III. — Stem  in  a  Consonant:  Perfect  in  si  or  V 

269.  Stem  in  a  Consonaxt:   Perfect  in  sL 

Present  Stem  adds  e.     See  251,  3. 

I.  Principal  Parts  in:  eo,         6re,         si,         sum. 


Algeo, 

algerc, 

alsl, 

to  he  cold. 

Ardeo, 

ardere, 

arei, 

arsura. 

to  burn. 

C5nIveo, 

conlvgre, 

conlvi, 
conixi, 

to  wink  at 

Frfgeo, 

friggre, 

frixi  (rare), 

to  be  cold. 

rul^eo, 

fulgCrc, 

fulsi, 

to  shine. 

Voetlc fulgo,/ulg^re,  etc 

Haereo,« 

haergre, 

haesi. 

haesum, 

to  stick. 

Jubeo, 

jubgre, 

.ussi, 

jussum, 

to  order. 

Luceo, 

lucere, 

luxi. 

to  shine. 

Lugeo, 

luggre, 

luxi, 

to  mourn. 

Maneo, 

manSre, 

mansi. 

mansum, 

to  remain. 

Mulceo, 

mulcerc, 

mulsi, 

mulsum, 

to  caress. 

Compounds  have  mulsum 

or  mulctum. 

Mulgeo, 

mulgere, 

mulsi, 

mulsum, 

to  milk. 

Rideo, 

ridere, 

risi, 

risum. 

to  laugh. 

Suadeo, 

suadere, 

suSsi, 

suasum, 

to  advise. 

Tergeo, 

tergere, 

tersi, 

tersum, 

to  vfipe. 

^  For  convenience  of  reference,  a  General  LUt  of  all  verbs  Involving  irrcgrularities 
will  be  found  on  page  328. 

»  The  stem  of  haereo  is  haes.  The  Present  adds  e  and  changes  « to  r  between  two 
vowels.  In  haesi  and  Tiaesum,  t  stands  for  M—haesi  for  haes-si— and  is  therefor©  not 
ehanged.    See  253, 1.  8. 


114  CLASSIFICATION   OF   VERBS. 

Tergo^  of  Conj.  III.,  also  occurs :  tergo,  ire^  si,  sum. 

Turgeo,  turgere,  tursi  {rare),      to  swell. 

Urgeo  (urgueo),  urgere,  ursi,  to  press. 

1.  deo,  ciere,  clvi,  ditum,  to  arouse,  has  a  kindred  form,  do,  clre,  clvi,  cltum, 
from  which  it  seems  to  have  obtained  its  perfect.  In  compounds  the  forms  of  the 
Fourth  Conj.  prevail,  especially  in  the  sense  of  to  call,  call  forth. 

2.  For  Euphonic  Changes  before  si  and  su7n,  see  258, 1. 

II.  Principal  Parts  in:  eo,         ere,         si,         tum. 

Augeo,  augere,  auxi,  auctum,  io  increase. 

Indulgeo,  indulgere,       indulsi,  indultum,         io  indulge. 

Torqueo,  torquere,        torsi,  tortum,  to  twist. 

270.  Stem  in  a  Consonant:   Perfect  in  i. 

Present  Stem  adds  e.     See  251,  3. 

I.  "With  Reduplication. 

Principal  Parts  in:  eo,         ere,         i,         sum. 

Mordeo,  mordere,  momordi,  morsum,  to  bite. 

Pendeo,  pendere,  pependi,  pensum,  io  hang. 

Spondeo,  spondere,  spopondi,  sponsum,  to  promise. 

Tondeo,  tondere,  totondi,  tonsum,  to  shear. 

For  reduplication  in  compounds,  see  255, 1.  4. 

II.  With  Lengthened  Stem- Vowel. 

1.  Principal  Parts  in:  eo,         ere,         i,         turn. 

Caveo,  cavere,  cavi,  cautum,  to  beware. 

F5veo,  favere,  favi,  fautum,  to  favor. 

Foveo,  fovere,  fovi,  fotum,  to  cherish. 

Moveo,  movere,  movi,  motum,  to  move. 

Paveo,  pavere,  pavi,  to  fear. 

Voveo,  vovere,  vovi,  votum,  to  vow. 

2.  Principal  Parts  in:  eo,         ere,         i,         sum. 

Sedeo,  sedere,  sedi,  sessum,  to  sit. 

So  circumsMeo  and  supersMeo.    Other  compounds  thus:  asdideo,  ere,  assidi, 
assessum  ;  but  dissldeo,  praesldeo,  and  resldeo,  want  Supine. 
Video,  videre,  vidi,  visum,  to  see. 

III.  "With  Unchanged  Stem. 

Principal  Parts  in:  eo,         ere,         i,         sum.^ 


Coniveo,  conlvere,     \  ^^^}^b  to  wink  at. 

'  '      (  comxi, 

fervi, 

ferbui, 


Ferveo,  fervere,        \  „   7''.  to  boil. 


1  Supine  £tem  is  wanting  in  most  of  these  verbs. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


116 


Langueo,         languere,         langui,  

LIqueo,  liqu6re,  liqui  (licui),      

Prandeo,  prandere,         prandi,  pransum, 

Participle,  pransus,  in  an  active  senso,  having  dined. 
StrlJeo,  strldere,  stiidi,  

271.  Deponent  Verbs. 


to  be  languid, 
to  be  liquid, 
to  dine. 


to  creak. 


1. 

Regular. 

Ltceor, 

Uc6ri, 

licTtus  sum, 

to  bid. 

Mereor, 

mereri, 

merltus  sum, 

to  deserve. 

Polllceor, 

pollic«ri, 

pollicltus  sum. 

to  promise. 

Tueor, 

tueri, 

tuitus  sum. 

to  protect. 

Vereor, 

vereri, 

2. 

veritus  sum. 
Irregular. 

to  fear. 

Ffiteor, 

fateri, 

fassus  sura, 

to  confess.^ 

Medeor, 
MIsSreor, 

medgri, 
misergri, 

to  cure. 

(  miseritus  sum, 
(  misertus  sum, 

to  pity. 

Reor, 

rSri, 

ratus  sum. 

to  think. 

3.  Semi-Deponent^ 

— Deponent  in  tJie 

Perfect. 

Audeo, 

audere, 

ausus  sum, 

to  dare. 

Gaudeo, 

gaudgre, 

gavlsus  sum. 

to  rejoice. 

Soleo, 

solere, 

solltus  sum. 

to  be  accustomed. 

THIRD  CONJUGATION. 
Class  I. — Stem  in  a  Consonant:   Perfect  in  si  or  L 


272.  Stem  in 

A  Consonant:   Perfect 

IN  si. 

I.  Principal  Parts 

in:  o,  io, 

gre,     si, 

turn. 

These  are  the  regular  endings  in 

verbs  whose  stems  end  in  a 

consonant. 

The  following  are  examples : ' 

Carpo, 

carpere. 

carpsi, 

carptum, 

to  pluck. 

Cingo, 

cingSre, 

cinxi  {jgsi\ 

cinctum. 

to  gird. 

Coquo, 

coquSre, 

coxi. 

coctum, 

to  cook. 

D6mo, 

demSre, 

dempsi. 

demptum, 

to  take  away. 

Dico, 

dicere, 

dixi. 

dictum. 

to  say. 

DQco, 

ducere, 

duxi. 

ductum, 

to  lead. 

Exstinguo, 

exstinguere. 

exstinxi, 

exstinctum,^ 

to  extinguish. 

GSro, 

gerere, 

gessi, 

gestum, 

to  carry. 

Nubo, 

nubere, 

nupsi. 

nuptum, 

to  marry. 

Rggo, 

reggre, 

rexi. 

rectum, 

to  rule. 

Sumo, 

sumSre, 

sumpsi. 

sumptum, 

to  take. 

Traho, 

trahSre, 

traxi. 

tractum. 

to  draw. 

»  Conflteor,  iri,  confetsus :  so  proflteor. 

'  For  EupTionic  Changes,  sec  258. 

•  So  other  compounds  of  itinguo  (rare):  dietinguo,  etc. 


116 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   VEPwBS. 


Uro, 

urgre, 

ussi, 

ustum, 

to  hum. 

Veho, 

vehere, 

vexi, 

vectum, 

to  carry. 

Vivo, 

vivere, 

vixi, 

victum, 

to  live. 

1.  Stem-Vowel  in  Compounds.    Sec  255,  II.  1. 

Carpo  :  de-cerpo,  decerpere,  decerpsi,  decerptum,  to  pluck  off. 
Rigo :  di-rigo,  dirigere,  direxi,  directum  (214, 1.),  to  direct. 

Here  decerpo,  though  it  has  not  the  same  stem-vowel  as  the  simple  carpo,  forms 
Its  principal  parts  precisely  like  the  simple  verb ;  but  dirigo  changes  the  stem- vowel 
in  forming  those  parts,  having  i  in  the  Pres.,  and  e  in  the  Perf.  and  Sup. 

2.  Compounds  of  Obsolete  Vekbs  present  the  same  vowel  changes :  Ldcio  (obs.): 
al-licio,  allic^re,  allexi,  allectum  (214,  II.),  to  allure. 

So  illicio,  pellicio.    For  elicio,  see  275, 1. 
Spicio  (obs.):  a-spicio,  aspicere,  aspexi,  aspectum,  to  look  at. 

II.  Principal  Parts  in:  o,  io,      Sre,      si,      sum.* 


CSdo,                cedSre, 

cessi. 

cessum. 

io  yield. 

Claudo,             claudere, 

clausi. 

clausum. 

to  close. 

Compomids  have  u  for  au . 

:  coiicludo,  excludo. 

Divido,              dividere, 

divlsi. 

di  visum, 

to  divide. 

Evado,              gvadere, 

evasi, 

evasum. 

to  evade. 

So  other  compounds  of  vddo.    See  281. 

Figo,                 figere, 
Flecto,             flectere, 

fixi, 
flexi, 

fixum, 
flexum. 

to  fasten, 
to  bejid. 

Frendo,             frendere. 

fresum, 
fressum. 

io  gnash. 

Laedo,              laedere. 

laesi. 

laesum, 

io  hurt. 

Compounds  have  i  for  ae  : 

illldo,  etc. 

LQdo,                ludere, 

lusi, 

lusum. 

to  play. 

Mergo,              mergere, 
Mitto,               mittere. 

mersi, 
mlsi, 

mersum, 
missum. 

to  dip. 
to  send. 

Neeto,              nectere. 

(  nexi, 
I  nexui,** 

nexum. 

to  hind. 

Pecto,               pectere, 
Plecto,              plectere, 
Plaudo,             plaudere. 

pexi, 
plexi, 
plausi. 

pexum, 
plexum, 
plausum. 

to  comb, 
to  plait, 
to  applaud. 

So  applaudo;  other  compounds  have  o  for 

au :  explodo,  etc. 

Premo,             premere, 
Quatio,             quatere, 

pressi, 
quassi. 

pressum  (258, 
quassum(258. 

I.  4),  to  press. 
I.  2),  to  sJiake. 

Compounds  have  cu  for  qua :  concutio,  etc. 

Rado,               radere, 

rasi. 

rasum. 

io  shave. 

•Rodo,               rode  re, 

rosi, 

rosum. 

io  gnaw. 

Spargo,             sparge  re, 

sparsi. 

sparsum, 

to  scatter. 

Compounds  generally  have 

e  for  a  :  aspergo,  respergo. 

Tergo,              tergere, 

tersi. 

tersum. 

io  wipe  off. 

Also  tergeo,  tergere  (Conj.  II.) ;  compounds 

take  this  form. 

Trudo,              trudere. 

trusi. 

trusum. 

io  thrust. 

^  For  Euphonic  Changes^  see  258. 

9  Compounds  take  this  form  in  the  Perfect. 


THIED   CONJUGATION.  117 

273.  Stem  in  a  Consonant:  Perfect  in  i 
I.   With  Reduplication. 

1.  Principal  Parts  in  :  o,  io,      Sre,      i,      tum. 

Abdo,  abdere,  abdidi,  abdltum,  to  hide. 

Bo  all  compounds  of  do,  except  those  of  Conj.  I.  (261) :  addo,  condo,  crido,  dido. 
Mo,  indo,  obdo,  perdo,  prodo,  reddo,  trddo,  vendo  ;  but  abs-condo  generally  drops 
reduplication:  aba-condi. 

CSno,  canere,  cScJni,  cautum,  to  sing. 

Conclno,  //•«,  cotKAnui, ;  so  occlno  and  praeclno;  other  compounds  want 

Pert  and  Sup. 

Credo,  credere,  credldi,  credltum,'         to  believe. 

Disco,  discSre,  dldici,  to  learn. 

Do,  Co7ij.  I.      /See  abdo,  ahove. 

Pango,  pangere,  pSptgi,  pactum,  to  bargain, 

Pango,  pangSre,        i  P^"P'  j  panctum,  ^^j^.^ 

°  '  r     o     -1         I  pegi,  {  pactum,  '' 

Compingo,  ire,  compegi,  compactum  ;  so  also  impingo.    Depanijo  wants  Perf. ; 

rfpango,  Perf.  and  Sup. 

PSrio,  parere,  peperi,  partum,  to  bring  forth. 

Participle,  parlturus  ;  compounds  are  of  Conj.  IV. 

Pungo,  pungere,  pupiigi,  punctum,  to  prick. 

Compounds  thus    compungo,  ire,  compunxi,  compunctum. 

Sisto,  sistere,  stiti,  statum,  to  place. 

Sisto  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  sto,  and  forms  the  Perf.  and  Sup.  after  that 

analogy.— Compounds  thus:  conH^o,  ire,  consfiti,  constitum;  hut circwnstiti  also 

occurs. 

Tango,  tangerc,  tStigi,  tactum,  to  touch. 

Compounds  thus :  attingo,  ire,  attlgi,  attactum. 

Tendo,  tendgre,  tgtendi,  ]  lensum,  to  stretch. 

Compounds  drop  reduplication  and  prefer  Sup.,  tentum,  but  deiendo  and  ostendo 
h.ive  temiim  ;  and  extendo,  prdtendo,  and  ritendo,  have  both  forms. 

Tollo,  tollerc,  ]  gustaif,''^''^'         sublatum,       to  raise. 

Attollo  and  esdoUo  want  Perf.  and  Sup. 
Vendo,  vendere,  vendidi,  venditum,^     to  sell. 

2.  Principal  Parts  in  :  O,         Sre,         i,         sum. 

Gado,  cadere,  cectdi,  casum,  to  fall. 

Inddo,  ire,  inc\di,  incdsum;  so  occldo  and  ricldo;  other  compounds  want 
rapine. 

*  Explained  as  compound  otdo ;  see  abdo. 


118  CLASSIFICATION   OF   VEKBS. 

Caedo,  caedcre,  cecidi,  caesum,  to  cut. 

Compounds  thus:  concldo,  in^  eoncldi,  conclsum. 

Curro,  currere,  cucurri,  cursum,  to  run. 

Excurro  and  praecurro  generally  retain  the  reduplication,  excucuri'i^  praec&- 
curri  ;  other  compounds  generally  drop  it. 

Fallo,  fallere,  fefelli,  falsum,  to  deceive, 

Rpfello,  ere,  refelli,  without  Supine. 
Parco,  parcere,  peperci  (parsi),    parsum,         to  spare. 

Comparco,  ere.,  comparsi.,  comparsum.,  also  with  e  for  a:  compercOy  ire,  etc. 
Imparco  and  reparco  want  Perf.  and  Sup. 

Pello,  pellere,  pepiili,  pulsum,^  io  drive. 
Pendo,  pendere,  pependi,  pensum/  io  weigh. 
Posco,  poscei-e,  poposci,  *  io  demand. 

Tendo,  tendere,  tetendi,  ]  tensum'  to  stretch. 

Compounds  drop  reduplication  and  prefei-  Sup.,  tentum,  but  detendo  and  osiendo 
have  tensum;  and  extendo,  protendo,  and  retendo,  have  both  forms. 

Tundo,  tundere,  tutudi,  j  Iflgum"^'  to  beat 

Compounds  drop  reduplication  and  generally  take  tUsum  in  Sup. 

11.   With  Lengthened  Stem- Vowel. 

1.  Principal  Parts  in  :  o,  io,       Sre,      i,      turn. 

Ago,.  agere,  egi,  actum,  to  drive. 

Bo  drcumdgo  and  pirdgo;  sdtdgo  wants  Perf.  and  Sup.  Other  compounds 
change  a  into  i  in  the  Pres. :  dbigo,  ire.,  dbegi,  abactum ;  but  coUgo  becomes  cogoy 
ire,  coegi,  coactum,  and  delgo,  digo,  ire,  digi,  without  Sup.  Prodigo  wants  Sup., 
and  ambigo,  Perf.  and  Sup. 

Capio,  capere,  cepi,  captum,  to  take. 

So  aniecdpio;  other  compounds  thus:  acclpio,  ere,  accept,  acceptum. 
Emo,  emere,  emi,  emptum,         to  huy. 

So  coemo  ;  other  compounds  thus :  ddlmo,  ere,  ademi,  ademptum. 
Facio,  facSre,  feci,  factum,  to  make. 

Passive  irregular:  fio,  JVeri,  f actus  sum.    See  294. 

So  sdtisfacio  and  compounds  of  facio  with  verbs,  but  compounds  with  preposi- 
tions thus  :  conflcio,  conficere,  confZci,  covfectum,  %vith  regular  Pass.,  conficior,  con- 
flci,  con/ectna  sum, — Compounds  of  facio  with  nouns  and  adjectives  are  of  Conj.  I.: 
eignifleo,  are,  dvi,  dtum. 

Frango,  frangere,  fregi,  fractum,         to  hreaJc. 

Compounds  thus :  eonfringo,  ire,  confregi,  confractum. 

*  Compounds  drop  reduplication,  255, 1.  4, 
3  Compounds  retain  reduplication,  255, 1.  4. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


119 


fugUum, 
jactum, 
other  compounds  thus :  abjlcio,  Sre, 


tojlee. 
to  throw. 


Fiigio,  fugere,  fiigi, 

Jicio,  jacSre,  jeci, 

Superjacio  h&s  jactum  or  jecium  in  Sup. 
ahjlci^  ahjectum. 
Lego,  legere,  Iggi,  lectum,  to  read. 

So  compounds,  except  (1)  coltlgo,  ire,  colUgi,  collectvm;  so  derigo,  ehgo,  seligo: 
—(2)  dlligo,  ire,  dilexi,  dilectum;  so  intelligo,  negligo. 

Linquo,  linquere,  llqui,  to  leave. 

CJompounds  with  Sup. :  relinquo,  ire,  rellqui,  relictum. 


Rumpo,             rumpere,          rupi, 

ruptum, 

to  burst. 

Scfibo,               scabSre,            scabi, 

to  scratch. 

Vinco,              vincere,            vici, 

victum, 

to  conquer. 

2.  Principal  Parts  in  :  o,  io, 

Sre,     i, 

,     sum. 

Edo,                  edSre,               6di, 

esum, 

to  eat. 

F6dio,              fod^re,             fOdi, 

fossum, 

to  dig. 

Fundo,             fundere,           fudi, 

fusum, 

to  pour. 

III.  With  Unchanged  Stem. 

Principal  Parts  in  :  o,         fire,         i, 

sum.* 

Accendo,         accendere,       accendi, 

accensum, 

to  kindle. 

So  other  compounds  otcando  (obsolete):  incendo,  succendo. 

Cudo,               cudere,             cudi, 

cusum, 

to  forge. 

Defendo,          defendere,        defendi, 

defensum, 

to  defend. 

So  other  compounds  of fendo  (obsolete);  offendo,  etc. 

Findo,              findere,             fidi  (findi), 

fissum, 

to  part. 

Ico,                   Icere,                 Ici, 

ictum. 

to  strike. 

Mando,             mandSre,          mandi, 

mansum. 

to  chew. 

Pando,             Pandere,           pandi, 

j  passum, 
/  pansum, 

to  open. 

Pmso(pl80),    pinsJre,         ]  PJ^^V 

i  pinsitum, 
}  pistum, 
(  pinsum. 

to  pound. 

Prehcndo,        prehendere,      prehendi, 

prehensum, 

to  grasp. 

Often  written  prendo,  prendire,  etc. 

Scando,            scandere,          scandi, 

scansum, 

to  dimb. 

Compounds  have  e  for  a  :  ascendo,  descendo. 

Scindo,             scindere,           scidi, 

scissum. 

to  rend. 

Solvo,               solvere,            solvi. 

solutum,' 

to  loose. 

Velio,               vellere,             velli  (vulsi), 

vulsum, 

to  pluck. 

Compounds  in  good  use  generally  have  velli. 

Verro,              verrere,            verri. 

versum, 

to  brush. 

Verto,               vertere,             verti. 

versum. 

to  turn. 

Compounds  of  de,  prae,  ri,  are  generally  deponent  in  the  Pres.,  Imperf.,  and 

Future. 

>  For  euphonic  changes  before  «,  see  258, 1. 

'  Fis  here  changed  to  its  corresponding  vowel  u :  soUUum  for  solvtum. 


120 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   VERBS. 


ViSO, 
Volvo, 


visere, 
volvere, 


vlsi, 
volvi, 


visum, 
volutum.* 


to  visit, 
to  roll. 


Class  II. — Stem  in  a  Consonant:   Perfect  in  ui. 

274.  Stem  in  a  Liquid — 1,  m,  n,  r:   Peefect  ix  ui. 

Principal  Parts  in :   o,    Sre,    ui,    turn,  or  itum. 

Alo,                  alere,                alui,  |  altuT'  to  nourish. 
Cello,  obsolete.     See  excello,  below. 

Colo,                colere,              colui,  cultum,  to  cultivate. 

Consulo,           consulere,         consului,  consultum,  to  consult. 

Excello,  excellere,  excellui  (rare), to  excel. 

Other  compounds  of  cello  want  Perf.  and  Sup.,  except  percello,  percellire,  per' 
cicli,  perculsum. 

fremui,  fremitmn,  to  rage. 

furui,  to  rage. 

gemui,  gemJtum,  to  groan. 

genui  (/.  g^no\  genitum,  to  beget. 

molui,  molitum,  to  grind. 

occului,  occultum,  to  hide. 

serui,  sertum,  to  connect. 

tremui,  to  tremble. 

vomui,  vomitum,  to  vomit. 

275.  Stems  in  b,  p,  c,  s,  t,  x:   Perfect  in  ui. 

I.  Principal  Parts  in:  o,io,     Sre,    ui,    turn,  or  itum. 

Accumbo,         accumbgre,       accubui,  accubJtum, 

So  other  compounds  of  cumbo^  cube.    See  cube,  260. 

Compesco,        compescSre,      compescui,       

Cumbo  for  cubo,  in  compounds :  see  accumbo. 

^  ,      «  J        •  ^  depsitum, 

Depso,  depsere,  depsui,  -j  depstum, 

Elicio,  elicere,  elicui,  elicitum, 

Other  compounds  of  Idcio,  thus:  allicio,  ire,  allexi,  allectum. 
,    .       .  i  pinsitum, 

Pinso,  pinsere,         i  K«!!^^'  •{  pistum, 

<P^^«^  (pinsum, 


Fremo, 

fremere, 

Fiiro, 

furgre, 

Gemo, 

gemere. 

Gigno, 

gignere. 

Molo, 

molSre^ 

Occulo, 

occulere. 

Sero, 

serere, 

Tremo, 

tremgre. 

Vomo, 

vomere. 

to  recline, 
to  restrain. 

to  knead. 

to  elicit. 

to  crush. 


Pono, 
RSpio, 

ponere, 
rapere. 

posui, 
rapui, 

positum, 
raptum. 

to  place, 
to  snatch. 

Compounds 

ithus:  corrlpio, 

1  eorripire. 

eorripui,  correptum. 

Sterto, 
Strgpo, 
Texo, 

stertere, 
strepere, 
texere, 

stertui, 
strepui, 
texui. 

strepitum, 
textum. 

to  snore. 

to  make  a  noise. 

to  weave. 

»  Sec  foot-note,  p.  119. 


THIRD   CONJUGATION.  121 

IL  Principal  Parts  in:  O,    Sre,    sui,    sum. 

M5to,  metere,  messui,  messum,  to  reap. 

Necto,  nectgre,         |  nexlli,  ''^''"™'  ''^  *''^* 

1.  The  Perfect  in  sui  is  a  double  formation,  si  enlarged  to  sui. 
III.  Many  Inceptives  in  esco  form  the  Perfect  in  ui  from  their  primi- 
tives.    See  282, 1.  2. 

Class  HI. — Stem  in  a  Vowel  :   Perfect  in  vl  or  i. 

276.  Stem  is  a:   Perfect  in  vl. 
Present  stem  adds  so  or  n.     See  251,  2  and  4. 

Inveterasco,*  inveterascSre,  inveteravi,  inveteritura,  to  grow  old. 

Pasco,*  pascSre,  pftvi,  pastum,  to  feed. 

Stemo,'  sternere,  stravi,  stratum,  to  strew. 

Veterasco,'  reterascere,      veteravi,  to  grow  old. 

1.  SSro,  stem  sa  (251,  7),  thus: 
SSro,  serere,  sevi,  sStum,  to  sow. 

Compounds  thus :  comiro,  ire,  consivi,  consUum. 

277.  Stem  in  e:   Perfect  in  vi. 
Present  Stem  adds  sc  or  n.     See  251. 

Abolesco,^       fibolescere,       abolevi,  abolltum,  to  disappear. 

So  htdlesco;  bvAdddleseo  has  Supine  aduUum;  exdlesco,  exoMum;  obafilesco^ 
obaoHtum. 

Cerno,*  cemSre,  crgvi,  erStum,  to  decide, 

Cresco,  crescere,  crgvi,  cretunj,  to  grow. 

Jncresco  and  succresco  want  Supine. 

Quicaco,'  quiescSre,       quievi,  quigtum,       to  rest. 

Spemo,*  spemSre,        sprgvi,  spretum,       to  spurn. 

Suesco,'  suescere,        suSvi,  suetum,        to  become  accustomed. 

278.  Stem  in  i :   Perfect  in  vi. 

Cupio,  cupere,  cuplvi,  cupltum,.  to  desire. 

Lino,'  lingre,  livi  or  Igvi,       lltum,  to  smear. 

Sipio,  sapere,  saplvi,  sapui,    to  taste. 

Compounds  have  i  for  a,  as  reApio.    D?sipio  wants  Vert,  and  Sup. 

1  Stem  invitira,  etc.,  strengthened  by  adding  ac.  See  251,  4.  The  stem  of  paoc* 
IS  pa,  pat. 

a  Stem  Htra,  by  metathesis  star,  lengthened  to  stam  (251,  2).  The  rowel  a  Is  then 
Bghtened  to  e  before  the  two  consonants  rn. 

»  Stems  dh6U,  quie,  etc. 

*  Stems  ere  and  »pr»,  by  metathesis  cer  and  tper,  lengthened  to  cem  and  gpern. 

•  Present  adds  n. 


122 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   VERBS. 


Sino,» 
Tero' 


sinSre, 
terere, 


sivi, 
trivi, 


situm, 
tritum, 


to  permit, 
to  rub. 


1.  A  few  Inchoatives  in  isco  form  the  Perfect  in  vi  from  their  primi- 
tives.    See  282,  I.  1. 

2.  The  following  verbs  have  i-stems  in  the  Perfect  and  Supine,  but 
consonant  stems  in  the  Present. 


Arcesso, 
CSpesso, 

Facesso, 

Incesso, 
LScesso, 
Peto, 
Quaero, 


arcessSre, 
capessere, 

facessere. 


arcessltum, 
capessltum, 

facessltum. 


call  for. 
lay  hold  of. 

make. 

attack, 
provoke, 
ask. 
seek. 


arcesslvi, 
capessivi, 
facesslvi, 
facessi, 

incessere,         incesslvi  or-cessi, to 

lacessere,         lacesslvi,  lacessltum,       to 

petere,  petivi,  petitum,  to 

quaere  re,  quaes! vi,  quaesltum,        to 

Compounds  thus:  acquire,  ire,  acquUlvi,  acquuitum. 
Riido,  rudore,  rudlvi,  rudltum,  to  hray. 

3.  Nosco  and  its  compounds  form  the  Perfect  in  vi. 

Nosco,  noscere,  novi,  notum,  to  know. 

So  ignosco. — Agnosco  and  cognosco  have  \tum  in  Sup.,  agnliiim  ;  dignosco  and 
intirnosco  want  Supine. 


279.  Stem  m  u:  Peefect  iif  i. 

Principal  Parts  in  :  o,         Sre,         i, 

The  following  are  examples  : 

Acuo,  acuere,  acui,  acutum, 

Arguo,  arguere,  argui,  argutum, 

Coarguo  and  redarguo  want  the  Supine. 

Imbuo,  imbuere,  imbui,  imbutum, 

Mmuo,  minuere,  minui,  minutura, 

Ruo,  ruere,  rui,  rutum. 

Part,  rulturua. — Corruo  and  irruo  want  Sup. 
Statuo,  statuere,  statui,  statutum. 

Compounds  change  a  into  i :  constUuo. 
Tribuo,  tribuere,  tribui,  tributum, 

1.  Fluo  and  struo  have  the  Perfect  in  ad. 

Fluo,  fluere,  fluxi,  fluxum, 

Struo,  struere,  struxi,  structum, 

280.  Supine  wanting. — ^The  following  verbs,  with  the  Perfect  in  si 
or  i,  want  the  Supine : 


turn. 


to  sharpen, 
to  convict. 


to  imbue, 
to  diminish, 
to  fall. 

to  place. 

to  impart. 


to  flow, 
to  build. 


*  Present  adds  n. 

2  Stem  tri,  by  metathesis  and  change  of  vowel  ttr. 


THIRD   CONJUGATIOX. 


123 


Ango,  ere,  anxi,      to  strangle. 
Annuo,  6ve,  i,  to  assent. 

So  other  compounds  of  nuo,  but  abnuo 
has  Part  abnuitHrus. 

to  beat. 


Bituo,  ere,  i, 
Blbo,  ere,  i, 
Congruo,  6  re,  i, 
Ingruo,  Sre,  i, 
Lambo,  ere,  i, 
Luo,  Sre,  i. 
Part.  luitiirus. 


to  drink, 
to  agree, 
to  assail, 
to  lick, 
to  wash. 
Compounds— aJZuo,  al- 


MStuo,  Sre,  i,  to  fear. 

Ningo,  Sre,  ninxi,  to  snow. 
Pluo,  ere,  i  or  vi,  to  rain. 
Psallo,  5  re,  i,  to  play  on  a  stnnged 

instrument. 
Sido,  Sre,  i,  to  sit  down. 

Perf.  and  Sup.  generally  supplied  from 
sfdeo;  hence  «2rfj,  eessum.    So  In  com- 
pounds. 
Strldo,  Sre,  i,  to  creak. 

Also  strideo.  Ire  (Conj.  II.). 
Sternuo,  ere,  i,        to  sneeze. 


luo,  etc.— have  Sup.  lUtum. 

281.  Perfect  and  Supine  wanting. — Some  verbs  want  both  Per- 
feet  and  Supine : 


Clango,  to  clang.  Stinguo,     to     quench ; 

Claudo,  to  he  lame.  but    distinguo,    Sre, 

FStisco,  to  gape.  distinxi,  distinctum  ; 

Glisco,  to  grow.  so  ezstingxio. 

llisco,  to  gape.  Temno,  to  despise ;  but 

1.  For  Inceptives,  see  282,  II. 


contemno,  Sre^  con- 
tempsi,  contemptum. 

Vado,  to  go.  See  6va- 
do,  272,  II. 

Vergo,  to  incline. 


282.  Inceptives. 

Inceptives  end  in  SCO,  and  denote  the  beginning  of  an 
action.  When  formed  from  verbs,  they  are  called  Verbal 
Inceptives,  and  when  formed  from  nouns  or  adjectives, 
Denominative  Inceptives, 

I.  Verbal  Inceptives. — Most  verbal  inceptives  want  the  Supine^  but 
take  the  Perfect  of  their  primitives : 

Acesco  {!iceo\  ScescSre,  acui,  to  become  sour. 

Aresco  {jireo\  arescSre,  arui,  to  become  dry. 

Caiesco  {ciileo\  calescere,  calui,  to  become  wann. 

Florcsco  {jioreo\  florescere,  florai,  to  begin  to  bloom. 

Tepesco  {tSpeo\  tcpescere,  tepui,  to  become  warm. 

Vlresco  {vireo\  virescere,  virui,  to  become  green. 

1.  The  following  take  the  Perfect  and  Supine  of  their  primitives : 

Abolesco      {ah,  dleo),       Sre,  Sbolevi,       abolltum,^      to  disappear. 

CoSlesco       (con,  &lo\      Sre,  coSlui,         coalltum,        to  coalesce. 

Concupisco  {con,  cupio),  ere,  concuplvi,    concupltum,  to  desire. 

ConvSlesco  (con,  v&leo),  ere,  convSlui,     convalitum,    to  grow  strong, 

Exardesco     (ex,  ardeo),    ere,  exarsi,  exarsum,        to  burn. 

Inveterasco  (itivSt^ro),      ere,  inveterSvi,  inveteratum,  to  grow  old. 

Obdormisco  (56,  Jormio),  ere,  obdormlvi,  ohdoTmltum,  to  fall  asle^. 


>  So  Indleaco;  but  dddlcaco  has  Sup.  aduUum;  exolesco,  cxoUtum;  obsdUeco, 
obeolStum. 


124 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   VERBS. 


RSvIvisco     M,  vivo),       Sre,  revixi,  revictum,       to  revive. 

Scisco  [scio),  Sre,  sclvi,  scltum,  to  enact. 

II.   Denominative  Inceptiyes. — Most  denominative  inceptives  want 
both  Perfect  and  Supine.     Thus 

Ditesco  {dives),  to  grow  rich.  Mitesco  (mliis),  to  grow  mild. 
Dulcesco  (dulcis),  to  become  sweet.  MoUesco  (mollis),  to  grow  soft. 
Grandesco  {grandis),  to  grow  large.      Puerasco  {puer),  to  become  a  boy. 

1.  The  following  have  the  Perfect  in  ui  : 


Crebresco 

Duresco 

Innotesco 

Macresco 

Maturesco 

Nigresco 

Obmutesco 

Recrudesco 

Yilesco 


Amplector, 

So  complector,  circumplector. 
Apiscor,  i,  aptus  sum, 

Adipincor,  i,  ddeptm  sum  ;  so  indlpiscor. 

Comminiscor,       i, 

Jiimlniecor  wants  Perf. 

Expergiscor,         i, 
FStiscor,  i, 

D^iUscor,  i,  d^essus  sum. 


(creber), 
(dunes). 

ere, 

crebrui. 

ere. 

durui, 

(m,  ndtus), 

ere. 

innotui, 

(macer). 

ere. 

macrui. 

{maturm), 
(niger), 

ere. 

maturui, 

ere. 

nigrui, 

(db,  mutus), 

ere, 

obmutui, 

(r^,  crudus), 
Ivllis), 

6re, 

recrudui. 

^re. 

vllui. 

2S3. 

Deponent  Verbs. 

i, 

ample; 

xus  sum. 

commentus  sum, 
experrectus  sum. 


(  fructus  sum, 
I  fruitus  sum. 


Fnior,  frui, 

Tait./ruUSi'us. 

Fungor,                i,  functus  sum, 

Gr^dior,                i,  gressus  sura. 

Compounds  thus :  aggredior,  i,  aggressus  sum. 

Irascor,                 i,  

Labor,                  i,  lapsus  sum, 

Liquor,                 i,  

L6quor,               i,  loctitus  sum, 
Miniscor,  obsolete  ;  see  comminiscor. 

Morior,                 i  (iri,  rare),  mortuus  sum. 
Part.  morUSrus. 

Nanciscor,  i, 

JSTascor,  i, 

Part.  naseitSrus. 

Niter,                  i,  -j  ^?^"^  ^"°^' 

'                    '  (  nixus  sum, 

ObUviscor,           i,  oblltus  sum, 


to  become  frequent, 
to  become  hard, 
to  become  known, 
to  become  lean, 
to  ripen, 
to  become  black, 
to  grow  dumb, 
to  bleed  afresh, 
to  become  worthless. 


to  embrace, 
to  obtain, 
to  devise. 


nactus  (nanctus)  sum, 
natus  sum, 


to  awake, 
to  gape. 

to  enjoy. 


to  perform, 
to  walk. 


to  be  angry, 
to  fall, 
to  melt, 
to  speak. 

to  die. 


to  obtain, 
to  be  bom. 


to  strive, 
to  forget. 


FOURTH   CONJUGATIOX, 


126 


PSciscor,             i,                       pactus  sum, 
PStior,                  i,                        passus  sum, 

Perpetior,  i,  perpessus  sum. 
Proflciscor,          i,                        profectus  sum, 
Queror,                 i,                        questus  sum, 

to  bargain, 
to  suffer. 

to  set  out. 
to  complain. 
to  remember. 
to  growl, 
to  follow. 

to  avenge, 
to  use. 

to  eat. 
to  trust. 

SSquor,                 i,                        secutus  sum, 
Tuor,  antiquated  fonn  for  tueor,  271,  1. 
Ulciscor,               i,                        ultus  sum, 
Utor,                    i,                        usus  sum, 
Vertor ;  see  dgvertor,  etc.,  under  verto,  273,  III. 

Semi-Deponent. 
Fido,                    fidSre,                f  isus  sum, 

FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 

Class  I. — Stem  in  i  :   Perfect  in  vi. 

284.   Principal  Parts  in  :  io,      ire,      ivi,     itum. 

The  following  are  examples : 


Flnio, 

finire. 

finivi, 

finitum. 

to  finish. 

Lenio, 

lenlre. 

lenlvi, 

lenltum. 

to  alleviate. 

Munio, 

munlre. 

munivi. 

munltum, 

to  fortify. 

Punio, 

punire. 

punlvi. 

punltum, 

to  punish. 

Scio, 

scire, 

scivi, 

scltum, 

to  know. 

SSpelio, 

sepelire. 

sepelivi. 

sepultum,' 

io  bury. 

SJtio, 

sitire. 

sitlvi, 

to  thirst. 

Vftgio, 

vaglre, 

vaglvi. 

to  cry. 

1.  Fis  often  dropped  in  the  Perfect :  audii  for  audivi.    See  234, 1. 

2.  Desideratives  (332,  III.), — except  Isurio^  Ire.,  — ,  itum;  nupturio^  Ire^ 
itiy  and  joar^&rw.  Ire,  tt;*,— want  both  Perf.  and  Sup.    Also  a  few  others : 


Balbutio,  to  stammer. 
Caecatio,  to  he  blind. 
Ferio,        to  strike. 


FerOcio,  to  he  fierce. 
Gannio,  to  hark. 
Ineptio,  to  trifle. 


Sagio,         to  he  wise. 
Superbio,  to  he  proud. 
Tussio,       to  cough. 


Class  II. — Stem  in  c,  1,  or  r :   Perfect  in  ui. 

Present  Stem  adds  i.  See  251,  3. 

285.   Principal  Parts  in :    io,      ire,      lii,      turn. 

Amicio,  SmicTre,  amicui  (xi),  amictum,  to  clothe. 

Apgrio,  SpSrlre,  aperui,  apertum,  to  open. 

OpSrio,  Sperlre,  operui,  opertum,  to  cover. 

Sailo,  sallre,  salui  (ii),  (saltum),  to  leap. 

Compounds  thus:  disilio.  Ire,  ui  (ii),  {desultum). 


Supine  irrogolar. 


126 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   VERBS. 


Class  III. — Stem  in  a  Consonant  :  Peefect  in  si  or  i. 

286.   Stem  in  a  Consonant  :   Perfect  in  si. 

I.  Principal  Parts  in  :  io,         ire,  .      si,        turn. 


Farcio, 

farcire, 

farsi, 

fartum, 
farctum. 

to  stuff. 

Compounds  thus :  confercii 

3,  Ire,  con/ersi,  confertum. 

Fulcio, 
Haurio/ 

fulclre, 
haurlre. 

fulsi, 
hausi, 

fultum, 
haustum,  hausum 

to  prop. 
,  to  draw. 

Sancio, 
Sarcio, 

sancire, 
sarcire, 

sanxi, 
sarsi, 

S  sancitum, 

\  sanctum, 

sartum. 

to  ratify, 
to  patch. 

Sepio, 
Vincio, 

sepire, 
vincire. 

sepsi, 
vmxi, 

septum, 
vinctum, 

to  hedge  in. 
to  hind. 

II. 

Principal  Parts  in  : 

io, 

ire. 

Si, 

sum. 

Raucio, 
Sentio, 

raucire, 
sentire. 

rausi, 
sensi, 

rausum, 
scnsum,^ 

to  he  hoarse, 
to  feel. 

287.   Stem  in  a  Consonant  :  Perfect  in  i. 

I.  "With  Lengthened  Stem- Vowel. 

VSnio,  venire,  veni,  ventum,  to  come. 

So  compounds :  advenio,  convenio,  dlvenio,  invenio,  obvenio,  pervenio,  etc. 

II.   With  Unchanged  Stem. 


Comperio, 

comperlre. 

comperi,          compertum, 

to  learn. 

Reperio, 

reperire, 

reperi,             repertum. 

to  find. 

288. 

Deponent  Verbs. 

1.  Regular. 

Blandior, 

iri, 

blanditus  sum. 

to  fatter. 

Largior, 

Iri, 

largltus  sum, 

to  hestow. 

Mentior, 

iri, 

mentitus  sum. 

to  lie. 

Molior, 

iri, 

molitus  sum, 

to  strive. 

Partior, 

iri. 

partitus  sum. 

to  divide. 

Imperfior,  iri,  impertlttia 

sum;  so  dispertior. 

Potior,3 

Iri, 

potltus  sum. 

to  ohtain. 

Sortior, 

iri. 

sortltus  sum, 
2.  Irregular. 

to  draw  lots. 

Assentior,* 

iri, 

assensus  sum, 

to  assent. 

^  The  stem  of  haurio  is  hatis.  The  Present  adds  i  and  changes  «  to  r  between  two 
vowels.  In  hausi  and  hausum,  s  stands  for  ss—Jiausi  for  Jiaus-si — and  is  therefore  not 
changed.    See  25S,  I.  5. 

3  Compound  assentio  has  a  deponent  form  assentior.    See  288,  2. 

8  In  the  Pres.  Ind.  and  Subj.,  forms  of  Conj.  III.  occur. 

<  Compounded  of  dd  and  sentio.    See  sentio,  286,  II. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS.  127 

ExpSrior,  Iri,  expertus  sum,  to  try. 

Metior,  Iri,  mensus  sum,  to  measure. 

OppSrior.  Iri,  \  ^PP^''.^,"' '"™'  to  await. 

vijpv<iiv»i,  ,  ^  oppentus  sum, 

Ordior,  Iri,  orsus  sum,  to  begin. 

Orior,  Iri,  ortus  sum,  to  rise. 

Part.  drltHrtui.—Frcs.  Ind.  Conj.  III.,  driria,  oritur.  Imp.  Sabj.,  drirer  or  orSrer. 

—So  compounds,  but  dddrior  follows  Conj.  IV. 

IRREGULAR  VERBS. 
289.  A  few  verbs  which  have  special  irregularities  are 
called  by  way  of   preeminence  Irregular  or  Anomalous 
Verbs,     They  are 

SiXm,      edOf     f^ro,      volo,     fio,      eo,      queo, 

and  their  compounds. 

290.  Siim,  T  am,  and  its  compounds. 

I.  The  conjugation  of  sum  has  been  already  given  (204) ;  its  numerous 
compounds — absum^^  adsum,  desum^  praesum^^  etc. — except  possum  and 
prOsum,  are  conjugated  in  the  same  way. 

n.  Posstim,        poss6,        pStui,    to  be  able. 


Indicative. 

SINGULAR. 

plural. 

Pres.           possum,      potes. 

p5test ; 

possumus,    potestls,    possunt. 

Imp.              potSrSm ; ' 

pStSramus. 

FuT.             potero ; 

potSrJmiis. 

Perp.           p5tul ; 

potuiraus. 

Plup.           p5tu6r5m ; 

potuSramiis. 

FuT.  Perf.  p5tuSro; 

potuerim  iis. 

Subjunctive. 

Prks.           possTm,      possis, 

possTt ; 

posslmus,     possltis,     possint. 

Imp.              possSm ; 

possemus. 

Perf.           potuerim ; 

pStuerimus. 

Plup.           p5tuissem ; 

p5tuissemus. 

Infinitive. 

Participle. 

Pres.        possS. 

Pres.         potens  {as  an  adjective). 

Perf.        potuissS. 

1.  Cojfposrriox, — Possum  la  compounded 

of  potls,  able,  and  sum,  to  bo.    The 

parta  are  Bometimes  separated,  and  then  p5l 

Ua  Is  indeclinable:  pdtis  sum,  pMia 

si'cmus,  etc. 

»  Absum  and  praesunu,  like  possum,  have  Pres.  Participles,  abaens  and  praesens. 
'  Inflected  regularly  through  the  different  persons ;  po^ranu,  poUras,  potSrat,  etc. 
So  also  in  the  other  tenses:  potui,  potuisti,  etc. 


128 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


2.  lEBEGrrLAKiTiES. — In  possum  observe 

1)  Th&tpotis  drops  w,  and  that  t  is  assimilated  before  « .'  possum  for  potsum. 

2)  Tliat/of  the  simple  is  dropped  after  f;  poiui  iox  potfui. 

8)  That  the  Infia.  posse  and  Subj.  possem  are  shortened  forms  for  potesee  and 
X)otessem. 

8.  Old  and  Eaee  Fokms.    Sec  204,  2. 

III.  Prosum,  I  profit,  is  compounded  of  jpro,  prod^  for,  and 
sum,  to  be.  It  retains  d  when  the  simple  verb  begins  with  e : 
prosum^  prodes^  prodest,,  etc.     Otherwise  it  is  conjugated  like  mm. 

291.  Edo,         edere,         edi,         esiim,     to  eat. 
This  verb  is  sometimes  regular,  and  sometimes  takes  forms  ^  like  those 
of  sum  which  begin  in  es.     Thus : 


PRES. 


Imp. 


Indicative. 

ed5,  edis,         edit;  edimus, 

es,^  est ; 

Subjunctive. 

(  Sderem,    ederes,    eduret;        ederSmus, 


cssSm,      esses,       esset ; 


gditls, 

estis. 


Sderetis, 
essetis, 


^dunt. 


Sderent. 
assent- 


Pres. 
Put. 


ede; 

6s  ;^ 
(  edito; 
(  estS; 


Imperative 

SdttS. 
estS. 
editote, 
estote. 


edunto. 


Infinitive. 
Pres.  edSre.  ess§. 

1.  Passive  Foems. — Estur  for  idltUr  and  essltiir  for  ed^retiir  also  occur. 

2.  Fokms  in  im  for  am  occur  in  Pres.  Subj. :  Sdlm,  ^dls,  idit,  etc.,  for  Iddm^ 
gdd«,  Sddt,  etc. 

8.  Compounds  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  c6mMo  has  in  Sup. 
comesum  or  comestum. 

292.  FSr5,         ferre,        tiili,        lattim,  to  bear. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Indicative. 


1*RES. 

Imp. 


SINGULAR. 

fero,     fers,     fert ; 
ferebSm ; ' 


PLURAL. 

ferimiis,     fertis,'     ferunt. 
ferSbamus. 


1  But  these  forms  have  e  long  before  «,  even  where  the  corresponding  forms  atsum 
have  e  short. 

a  Fera  torf^ria :  fert  fotJ^rU ;  fertla  for/^rltls  (i  dropped). 
'  Inflect  the  several  tenses  in  fall :  ,0rfibam,ferlbas,  etc. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


129 


SINQULAR. 

PLURAL. 

FUT. 

fSrSm; 

fSrgmus. 

Perf. 

tull; 

tiillmus. 

Plup. 

tiiler^m; 

tillSramus. 

FuT.  Pert,  tiilero ; 

tiilerimus. 

Subjunctive. 

Pres. 

fSrSm; 

feramiis. 

Imp. 

ferreni ; 

ferrgmiis.* 

Perp. 

tiilSrirn ; 

tiilenmiis. 

Plup. 

tiiUssgm ; 

tulissgmus. 

Imperative. 

Pres. 

f($r;« 

fertS. 

FCT. 

fert^, 

fert5t6, 

fert5; 

feruntS. 

Infinitive 

Participle. 

Pres. 

ferre.* 

Pres.  ferens. 

Perf. 

tiilissS. 

FCT. 

iMurus  esse. 

FuT.    laturiis. 

Gerund. 

Supine. 

Gen. 

fgrendl. 

Dot. 

ferendo. 

Ace. 

ferendum. 

Ace.    latiim. 

Abl. 

fSrendS. 

Abl.    lata. 

PASSIVE 

VOICE. 

fSrSr,            ferri,            lit 

us  sum,            to  he  home. 

Indicative. 

Pres. 

fSrSr,     ferns, 

fertur;8 

fSrfmur,     ferfmlnl,     fSruntiir. 

Imp. 

ferebar; 

fSr§bamur. 

FcT. 

ferSr; 

feremur. 

Perf. 

latiis  sum ; 

latl  sumiis. 

Plup. 

latus  eram ; 

latl  eramus. 

FuT.  Perf.  latua^rS;     ;' 

l&tl  er&nds. 

Subjunctive. 

Pres. 

ferSr; 

feramur. 

»  Ferrenu,  etc.,  tor/^r^rim,  etc. ;  ferrS  totjiriri  («  dropped). 

»  nr  tor/^rf;  fertoJerHJerUitt,  ior ferm.fif'Mo.fiAWti  {i  dropped). 

•  Ferr\K  tor/eririt ;  ftrtUr  for  firitir. 


130 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Imp. 

ferrgr;! 

ferremur. 

Perp. 

latus  sIm ; 

latl  simus. 

Plup. 

latus  essem ; 

latl  essemiis. 

Imperative. 

Prks. 

ferrS;! 

feriminl. 

Put. 

fertor, 

fertor; 

furuntor. 

I 

NFINITIVE 

Participle 

Pres. 

fern. » 

Perf. 

latiis  essS. 

Perf.    latus. 

Put. 

latum  in. 

Ger.      ferendos. 

1.  Irregularities. — Fero  has  two  principal  irregularities  : 

1)  It  forms  its  Perf.  and  Sup.  tuli  (rarely  i^tuli)  and  latum  from  obso« 
lete  stems. 

2)  It  drops  the  connecting  vowel  e  or  i  before  r,  s,  and  t. 

2.  Compounds  of  fero  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  in  a 
few  of  them  the  preposition  suffers  a  euphonic  change : 


db- 

aufero, 

auferre, 

abstuli, 

abMtum. 

ad- 

affgro, 

afFerre, 

attiili, 

allatum. 

con- 

confero, 

conferre, 

contuli, 

coUatum. 

di8- 

differo, 

differre, 

distuli, 

dilatum. 

ex~ 

efFero, 

efferre, 

extuli, 

elatum. 

in- 

infero, 

inferre, 

intuli, 

illatum. 

ob- 

offero, 

ofFerre, 

obtuli, 

oblatura. 

suh- 

suffcro, 

sufferre, 

sustuli, 

sublatum. 

SuatMi  and  subldtum  are  not  often  used  in  the  sense  of  suffiro,  to  bear,  but  they 

supply  the  Perf.  and  Sup.  of  tollo,  to  raise.    See  273, 1. 1. 

293. 

V61o, 

velle,         v51ul,         to 

h&  willing. 

N615, 

nolle,        nolui,        to  he  unwilling. 

Mal5, 

mails,        malui,        to 
Indicative. 

prefer. 

Pres. 

v51o, 

nolo. 

malo, 

vis. 

nOn  vis. 

mavis, 

vult; 

non  vult ; 

mavult ; 

vSlumus, 

noliimus, 

malumiis, 

vultis, 

non  vultiS, 

mavultis. 

volunt. 

nolunt. 

malunt. 

*  I^rrir,  etc.,  for  fSrSrSr,  etc.;  ferrS  tor  J^rSrS ;  fertdr  tor  f^ritdr ;  ferrl  for 
ySrSrl,/Srl. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


181 


Imp. 

vSlebSm. 

nOlebim. 

mal6b&m. 

FUT. 

volSm. 

nSiam. 

m^llam. 

Perf. 

v61ul. 

nOluI. 

malul. 

Plup. 

voluSrSm. 

noluSriSm. 

malugr5m. 

Put.  Perf. 

volugro. 

nolugro. 

Subjunctive. 

maluero. 

Pres. 

v51Im.» 

nOlIm. 

mallm. 

Imp. 

vellgm.« 

noUem. 

mallSm. 

Pkrf. 

voluSrim. 

nolugrim. 

lualuSrlm. 

Plup. 

vdluissSm. 

noluissSm. 

maluissem 

Imperative. 

P.  n5lT,  nOlItg. 

F.  nClito,        nOlItOte, 


nOlito; 


ilunto. 


Infinitive 


Pres. 

veUS. 

nollg. 

mails. 

Perf. 

v51ui88§. 

noluissS. 

Participle. 

maluisaS. 

Pbxs. 

ySlens. 

1            nolens. 

1.  The  stem  of  vSlo  is  vdl  with  variable  stem-vowel,  6,  S,  ■&. 

2,  NOLO  is  compounded  of  nS  or  non  and  vdlo  ;  malo,  of  m&g\^  and  v^lo. 
8.  Rare  Forms. — (1)  Of  volo:  volt,  voltis,  for  vidt,  vultis  ;  sw,  sultis^ 

for  si  vis,  si  vultis  ;  virC  for  visne. — (2)  Of  n6lo  :  ntvis,  nlvult  (nevolt), 
nevelle,  for  non  (ne)  vis,  non  {ne)  vult,  nolle. — (3)  Of  malo  :  mdvdlo,  mav^lim^ 
maveliem,  for  mdlo,  mdlim,  maUem. 

294.   Fi6,     fiSri,     facttis  sUm,     to  become,  he  made,* 
Indicative. 


SINGULAR. 

Pres.  fio,  fis,  fit; 

Imp.  flebSm ; 

FuT.  fl5m ; 


PLURAL. 

flmus,  fitJs,  fiunt. 

flebamus. 

figmiis. 


*  Vilim  Is  Inflected  like  «m,  and  vellem  like  essem. 

*  VelliSm  and  velle  are  Byncopated  forms  for  velirem,  vel^re;  e  Is  dropped  andr 
assimilated ;  velirem,  velrem,  vellem ;  veUre,  velre,  telle.  So  nollem  and  nolle,  for 
nolirem  and  noUre  ;  mallem  and  malle,  for  malirem  and  maUre. 

»  CoiipocNDS  of  ^  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  conflt,  diflt,  and  inftt 
are  defective.    Bee  297,  III.  2. 
7 


132 


IRREGULAR   TERES. 


SINGULAR. 

Perf.  factiis  sum ; 

Plup.  factiis  eram ; 

FuT.  Perf.  factiis  ero ; 


PUJRAL. 

facti  siimiis. 
facti  eramus. 
facti  erJmiis. 


Subjunctive. 

Pres.  fiam ;  ftamiis. 

Imp.  fierem ;  f  iSremiis. 

Perf.  factiis  sim ;  facti  simiis. 

Plup.  factiis  essem ;  facti  essemiis. 


Imperative. 

Pees. 

ft; 

fite. 

Infinitive 

Participle 

Pres. 

fieri. 

Perf. 

factiis  ess5. 

Perf.  factiis. 

Put. 

factiim  in. 

Ger.    faciendiis. 

295. 

E6, 

ir^,             ivi,             ittlm, 
Indicative. 

to  go. 

Pres. 

e6,Is,it; 

imus,  itis,  eunt 

Imp. 

ibSm; 

ibamiis. 

Put. 

ibo; 

ibimiis. 

Perf. 

IvI; 

ivXmiis. 

Plup. 

iverSm ; 

iveramiis. 

Put.  Perf. 

ivero; 

iverimiis. 

Subjunctive. 

Pres. 

eSm; 

eamiis. 

Imp. 

Irgm; 

iremiis. 

Perf. 

iverim ; 

ivgnmiis. 

Plup. 

ivissem ; 

ivissgmiis. 
Imperative. 

Pres. 

i; 

itg. 

Put. 

its, 

It5te, 

itS; 

eunto. 

Infinitive, 

Pres.  ire. 

Perf.  ivissS. 

Put.  ituriis  esse. 


Participle. 

Pres.  iens.     Oen.  euntJs. 
Put.  ituriis. 


DEFECTIVE    VERBS. 


133 


Gerund, 

Oen.  eundl. 

Dat.  eundo. 

Ace.  eundum. 

Abl.  eundo. 


Supine. 


Ace.  Itum. 

Abl  itu. 


1.  Irbequlabities.— ^o  is  a  verb  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  but  it  forms 
the  Sup.  with  a  short  vowel  {itum)  and  is  irregular  in  several  parts  of  the 
present  system.    It  admits  contraction  according  to  234 :  iatis  for  ivistis,  etc. 

2.  Passive  Infinitive.— jEb,  as  an  intransitive  verb,  wants  the  Passive, 
except  when  used  impersonally  in  the  third  singular,  itur,  ibdtur,  etc. 
(301, 1),  but  iri,  the  Pass.  Infin.,  occurs  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  Fut.  Inlin. 
Pass,  of  the  regular  conjugations :  amdtum  iri,  etc. 

3.  Compounds  of  eo  are  generally  conjugated  like  eo,  but  shorten  ivi 
into  a. —  VSneo  {venum  eo)  has  sometimes  veniebam  for  venibam.  Many 
compounds  want  the  supine,  and  a  few  admit  in  the  Fut.  a  rare  form  in  earn, 
ies^  i^t. 

Transitive  compounds  have  also  the  Passive :  adeo^  to  approach,  adeor^ 
adiris,  adltur^  etc. 

Ambio  is  regular,  like  audio,  though  ambibam  for  ambiebam  occurs. 

296.  Queo,  quire,  qulvi,  quxtum,  to  be  able,  and  nequeo,  riSquire, 
nequlvi  (ii),  ncquitum,  to  be  unable,  are  conjugated  like  eo,  but  they  want 
the  Imperative  and  Gerund,  and  are  rare  except  in  the  Present  tense.* 


DEFECTIVE    VERBS. 

297.   Defective  Verbs  want  certain  parts.      The  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  important.' 

I.    Present  System  wanting. 

Coepi,  I  have  begun.    MSmlni,  I  remember,    Odi,  Ihate. 

Indicative. 


Perf.  coepl. 

Plop.  coepgr5m. 

Fut.  Perf.  coep6r5. 


Perf. 
Plcp. 


coepSrIm. 
coepissSm. 


mSmlnl. 

mSmJnSrSm. 

mSmlnSro. 

Subjunctive. 

meminerJm. 
mSmJnissem. 


OdI. 

odSrSm. 

CdgrS. 


oderlm. 
5diss§m. 


'  A  passive  form  qtatur,  nequltur,  etc.,  sometimes  occurs  before  a  Pass.  Infln. 
a  Many,  which  want  the  Perf.  or  Sup.  or  both,  have  been  mentioned  under  the 
Classification  of  Verbs.    See  269  to  288. 


134 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 


Imperative. 

S.  mementS. 
P.  mementSte. 

Infinitive. 

Pkrp. 

FUT. 

coepissS.                        mSminisse. 
coepturua  ess§. 

Participle. 

odissS. 
Osurus 

Perf. 

FUT. 

coeptiis. 
coepttirus. 

5sus.> 
osurus. 

1.  Passive  Form.— With  passive  infinitives  co^  generally  takes  the 
passive  form:  coeptus  sum,  eram,  etc.  The  Part,  eoeptus  is  passive  in 
sense. 

2.  Present  ct  Sense. — Memini  and  odi  are  present  m  sense ;  hence  in 
the  Pluperf.  and  Fut.  Perf.  they  have  the  sense  of  the  Imperf.  and  Fut. — 
Novi,  I  know,  Perf.  of  nosco,  to  learn,  and  consuevi,  I  am  wont,  Perf.  of 
consuesco,  to  accustom  one's  self,  are  also  present  in  sense. 


II.    Parts  of  each  System  wanting, 
1.  Aio,  1 8ay^  say  yes.^ 


Indic.    Pres.  aio,  ais,^         ait ; 

Imp.  fiiebSm,  -ebas,      -ebSt; 

Perf.  alt; 

SuBJ.     Pres.  aias,        ai2t; 

Imper.   Pres.  al(rare). 

Part.    Pres.  aiens  {as  adjective), 

2.  Inquam,  I  say. 

Indic.    Pres.   inquSm,  inquts,     inquJt; 

Imp.    inquiebSt;^ 

Fut    inquigs,  inquiSt; 

Perf.  inquisti,  inquit; 

Imper.   Pres.   inque.  Fut.  inquito. 


amnt. 

-Sbamiis,    -Sbatis,    -Sbant.-* 

aiant. 


inqutmiis,  inquMs,  inquiunt. 


1  Oms  is  active  in  sense,  hating,  but  is  rare  except  in  compounds:  exosus,  pSrosua. 
a  In  this  verb  a  and  i  do  not  form  a  diphthong;  before  a  vowel  the  *  has  the  sound 
of  y:  d-yo,  a/-u.    See  7,  4,  4). 

'  The  interrogative  form  aisne  is  often  shortened  into  aiiC. 

*  Albam,  albas,  etc.,  occur  in  comedy. 

*  Also  written  inqulhat. 


DEFECTIYE   VERBS.  136 


3.  Fan,  to  speaks 

Indic.    Pres.   

filtiir;      

Fut    fabSr, 

fabltiir;   

Perf.  fatus  sum,      gs, 

est ;          fati  siimus. 

estis. 

sunt 

Plup.  fatus  erSm,    eras, 

erat ;        fatI  eramus, 

eratls. 

grant. 

SuBJ.     Perf.  fatiis  slm,       sis. 

sit;           fatlslmus. 

sitis. 

sint. 

Plup.  fatiis  essem,  essSs, 

esset ;      fUti  essgrniis, 

essgt)[s, 

essent. 

Imper.   Pres.   farS. 

Iotin.    Pre*,   fart. 

Part.    Pres.   (fans)  fantis ;  Perf. 

fatus ;   Oer.  fandiis. 

Gerund,  Oen.  and  Abl.  fandl,  do. 

Supine,  Abl.  f^tu. 

III.    Imperatives  and  Isolated  Forms, 

1.  Imperatives.— Sve,      avetg ;    av6t6 ;      Inf.  averS,    hail 

salvg,   salvStS,  salv6to ; '         salvgrS,  hail. 

cSdo,    cettS,  tell  me,  give  me. 

fipSge,  begone. 

2.  Isolated  Forsis. 

Indic.  Pre*.  Fut.       Sub.  Pr^s.       Imp.        Infin. 

confit,    confiat,    conflgrSt,      conflSrf,  to  be  done. 

deftt,     deflunt,    deflet,      defiSt,      defigrf,    to  be  wanting. 

inftt,      influnt,    to  begin. 

Sub.  Imp.  f orgm,  f Sres,  foret, forent.       Inf.  ffirS.' 

Ind.   Pres.  ovSt.  Part.  6van3,  he  rejoices. 

Ind.  Pres.  quaeso,  quacsumiis,*  I  pray. 

IMPERSONAL    VERBS. 

298.  Impersonal  Verbs  never  admit  a  personal  subject. 
They  correspond  to  the  English  Impersonal  with  it :  licet, 
it  is  lawful,  6portet,  it  behooves.'  They  are  conjugated 
like  other  verbs,  but  are  used  only  in  the  third  person  sin- 
gular of  the  Indicative  and  Subjunctive,  and  in  the  Present 
and  Perfect  Infinitive. 

299.  Strictly  Impersonal  are  only  : 

J  Fdri  is  used  chiefly  in  poetry.    Compounds  have  Borae  forms  not  found  In  the 
simple :  affdmur,  ajfamini,  affahar ;  effaberis. 

*  The  Fut.  aahlbis  is  also  used  for  the  Imperat. 

'  Forem  =  essem :  fore  =  f flturum  esse.    See  204,  2. 

*  Old  forms  for  quaero  and  quaerirmi*. 

'  The  real  subject  is  generally  an  infinitive  or  clause :  hoc  fiiri  6port€t,  that  thi» 
should  be  done  is  necessaiy. 


136  IMPERSONAL   VERBS. 


Llbet,    I 


Decet,      dScuIt,  it  becomes.^        „^  ^       (  piffuit, 

,.,    v^  Piget,    i  \,  .^„         .    it  grieves. 

libuit,  J  (  pigitura  est,       ^ 

libitum  est,  ^         '  Paemtet,  paenituit,       itcamesre- 

^  „  „       (  licult,  .    .    ,     „  , ,  gret ;  paenitet  me,   /  repent. 

LIc§t,    •<  ,v  v^w         .  itu  lawful}  - ,  -X 

'    (hcitum  est,  ''  ^„,^      (  puduit,  ,     , 

T>-     Vi.     IV    Vi.  '^  •       •  J    ^  1  luaet,  s    vjy^w        ^  it  shames. 

Liquet,     licuit,  it  is  evident.^  '    /  puditum  est, 

MlsSret,  mlseritum  est,  it  excites  pity  ;  Taedet,  it  wearies  ;  pertaedSt,  per- 

me  miseret,  I  pity.  taesum  est. 

Oportet,  oportuit,  it  behooves. 

1.  Paeticiples  are  generally  wanting,  but  a  few  occur,  though  with  a 
somewhat  modified  sense:  (1)  from  libet:  libens,  willing;  (2)  from  licet: 
lice/is,  free;  licitus,  allowed;  (3)  from  paenitet:  paenitens,  penitent;  paeni- 
tendus,  to  be  repented  of;  (4)  from  pudet:  piidens,  modest;  pudendus, 
shameful. 

2.  Gerunds  are  generally  wanting,  but  occur  in  rare  instances :  paeni- 
tendum,  pudendS. 

300.  Generally  Impersonal  are  several  verbs  which  des- 
ignate the  changes  of  weather,  or  the  operations  of  nature : 

FulminSt,  it  lightens;  grandiinSt,  it  hails;  lucesclt,  it  grows  light; 
pluit,  it  rains  ;  rorSt,  dew  falls  ;  tonat,  it  thunders. 

301.  Many  other  verbs  are  often  used  impersonally  : 
Accidit,  it  happens  ;  apparet,  it  appears  ;  constat,  it  is  evident ;  con- 

tingit,  it  happens  ;  delectat,  it  delights  ;  dolet,  it  grieves  ;  interest,  it  con- 
cerns ;  juvat,  it  delights ;  pStet,  it  is  plain;  placet,  it  pleases ;  praestat, 
it  is  better  ;  rSfert,  it  concerns. 

1.  In  the  Passive  Voice  intransitive  verbs  can  only  be  used  imper- 
sonally.   The  participle  is  then  neuter: 

Mihi  crgditur,  ii  is  credited  to  me,  I  am  believed;  tibi  creditur,  you  are 
believed;  creditum  est,  it  was  believed ;  certatur,  it  is  contended;  curritur, 
there  is  running,  people  run;  pugnatur,  it  is  fought,  they,  we,  etc.,  fight; 
vivitur,  we,  you,  they  live. 

2.  The  Passive  Periphrastic  Conjugation  (232)  is  often  used  imper- 
sonally.    The  participle  is  then  neuter : 

Mihi  scrlbendum  est,  I  must  write  ;  tibi  scribendum  est,  you  must  write  ; 
illi  scribendum  est,  he  must  write. 


These  four  occur  In  the  third  person  plural,  but  without  a  personal  subject. 


PASTICLES.  137 

CHAPTER    V. 
PARTICLES. 

302.  The  Latin  has  four  parts  of  speech  sometimes 
called  Particles:  the  Adverb^  the  Preposition^  the  Con- 
junction^ and  the  Interjection, 

ADVERBS. 

303.  The  Adverb  is  the  part  of  speech  which  is  used 
to  qualify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs :  celerUh' 
currercy  to  run  swiftly  ;  t(im  c&ler,  so  swift ;  tarn  celerlter, 
so  swiftly. 

304.  Adverbs  may  be  divided,  according  to  their  sig- 
nification, into  four  principal  classes  : 

I.  Adverbs  of  Place, 

Hic,  here;  hue,  hither;  hinc,  hence. 

illic,  there;  illuc,  thither;  illinc,  thence, 

istic,  there;  istuc,  ihitker;  istinc,  thence, 

iibi,  where!  quo,  whither?  undS,  wheiux? 

II.  Adveebs  of  Time. 

H6die,  to-day.  nondum,  not  yet  saepe,  often, 

ibi,  then.  nunc,  now.  semel,  once. 

jSm,  now.  nunquSm,  never.  tiim,  then. 

jamdiu,  long  since,  olun,  formerly,  unquam,  ever. 

III.  Adverbs  of  Manner,  Meax8,  Degree. 

Adeo,  so.  paen5,  almost.  sic,  so. 

fiiltSr,  otherwise.  palSm,  openly.  fit,  as. 

Its,  so.  prorsus,  wholly.  valde,  inach. 

migia^  more.  rite,  rightly.  vix,  scarcely. 

IV.  Adverbs  of  Cause,  Inference. 

Cur,  why  ?  eo,  for  this  reason. 

quSre,  wherefore.  Ideo,  on  this  account. 

quSmobrSm,  wherefore.  idcirco,  therefore. 

quapropter,  wherefore.  propterea,  therefore. 

1.  For  Interrogative  Particles,  see  346,  II.  1  and  2. 

2.  For  Negative  Particles,  see  584  and  685. 


138  ADVERBS.      PREPOSITIONS. 

305.  Comparison. — Most  Adverbs  are  derived  from 
adjectives,  and  are  dependent  upon  them  for  their  compari- 
son. The  comparative  is  the  neuter  singular  of  the  adjec- 
tive, and  the  superlative  changes  the  ending  us  of  the 
adjective  into  e  : 

altus,  altior,  altissimus,  lofty. 

alte,  altius,  altissime,  loftily. 

prudens,  prudentior,  prudentissimus,  prudent. 

prudenter,  prudentius,  prudentissimg,  prudently. 

1.  Magis  and  Maxime. — When  the  adjective  is  compared  with  m&gXs 
and  maxime^  the  adverb  is  compared  in  the  same  way : 

ggregius,  magis  egregius,      maxime  egregius,       excellent. 

egi'egie,  mSgis  egregie,        maxime  egregie,        excellently. 

2.  Irregular  Comparison.— When  the  adjective  is  irregular,  the  ad- 
verb has  the  same  irregularity : 

bonus,  melior,  optimus,  good. 

bSne,  melius,  optimg,  well. 

mSlS,  pejus,  pessimg,  badly. 

3.  Defective  Comparison. — When  the  adjective  is  defective,  the  ad- 
verb is  generally  defective : 

detSrior,  deterrimus,  worse. 

deterius,  deternme,  worse. 


n5vus,  novissimus,  new. 

nove,  novissime,  newly. 

4.  Compared. — A  few  not  derived  from  adjectives  are  compared : 

diu,  diutiiis,  diutissime,  for  a  long  time. 

saepe,  saepius,  saepissime,  often.. 

sStis,  satius,  sufficiently. 

nuper,  nuperrime,  recently. 

6.  Not  compared. — Most  adverbs  not  derived  from  adjectives,  as  also 
those  from  adjectives  incapable  of  comparison  (169),  are  not  compared: 
hic^  here ;  nunc,  now ;  vulgarit^r^  commonly. 

6.  Superlatives  in  o  or  um  are  used  in  a  few  adverbs :  primd,  primum^ 
pdtissimum. 

PKEPOSITIONS. 

306.  The  Preposition  is  the  part  of  speech  which  shows 
the  relations  of  objects  to  each  other  :  in  Itdlia  esse,  to  be 
in  Italy  ;  ante  me,  before  me.     See  433-435. 

307.  Inseparable  Prepositions. — Ambi,  amb,  around,  about;  dis, 
dl,  asunder ;  rS,  red,  back ;  se,  sed,  aside,  apart ;  and  ve,  not,  are  called  in- 
separable prepositions,  because  they  are  used  only  in  composition. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  139 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

308.  Conjunctions  are  mere  connectives:  pdter  bt/iHus, 
the  father  and  son ;  pdter  a\jt  JiUus,  the  father  or  son. 

309.  Conjunctions  are  divided,  according  to  their  use, 
into  two  classes : 

I.  Coordinate  Conjunctions, — which  connect  similar 
constructions:  Idbor  vdluptasqu^j  labor  and  pleasure  ;  Car- 
t/idglnem  cepit  ac  diruit,  he  took  and  destroyed  Carthage. 

II.  Subordinate  Conjunctions, — which  connect  subor- 
dinate with  principal  constructions  :  haec  diXm  colUgunt, 
effttgity  while  they  collect  these  things,  he  escapes. 

I.  Coordinate    Conjunctions. 

310.  Coordinate  Conjunctions  comprise  five  subdivi- 
sions : 

1.  Copulative  Conjunctions,  denoting  union  : 

Et,  quS,  atqu8,  ac,  and.  Etiam,  qu6qu8,  also.  NSquS,  ngc,  and  not. 
NgquS — nequS,  nSc — ^nSc,  nSquS — n§c,  neither — nor. 

2.  Disjunctive  Conjunctions,  denoting  separation  : 

Aut,  vSl,  vS,  sivg  (seu),  or.  Aut — aut,  vel — vel,  either — or.  Slve — 
Blv3,  either— or. 

3.  Adversative  Conjunctions,  denoting  opposition: 
Sad,  autSm,  vgriim,  vero,  but.     At,  htU,  on  the  contrary.      AtquI, 

rather.     Cgterum,  hut  still.     TSmen,  yet. 

4.  Illative  Conjunctions,  denoting  inference: 

Ergo,  Igitur,  indS,  proindg,  ItiquS,  hence,  therefore.    See  also  58Y,  IV.  2. 

5.  Causal  Conjunctions,  denoting  cause  : 
Nim,  namquS,  enim,  StSnlm,  for. 

II.  Subordinate  Conjunctions. 

311.  Subordinate  Conjunctions  comprise  eight  subdi- 
visions : 

1.  Temporal  Conjunctions,  denoting  time  : 

Quando,  quiim,  when.  Ut,  ubi,  as,  when.  Quum  primum,  fit  primum, 
ubi  primum,  sTmul,  siraulac,  stmulatque,  as  soon  as.     Diim,  donSc,  quoSd, 


140  CONJUNCTIONS.      INTERJECTIONS. 

quamdiQ,  while,  until,  as  long  as.     Antequam,  priusquam,  before.     PosteS- 
quam,  after. 

2.  Comparative  Conjunctions,  denoting  comparison  : 

Ut,  uti,  sicut,  slcuti,  as,  so  as.  Veliit,  jtist  as.  Praeut,  prout,  ac- 
cording as,  in  comparison  with.  Quam,  as.  Tanquam,  quasi,  ut  si,  ac  si, 
veliit  si,  as  if. 

3.  Conditional  Conjunctions,  denoting  condition: 

Si,  if.  Si  non,  nisi,  nl,  if  not.  Sin,  hut  if.  Si  quidem,  if  indeed. 
Si  m5do,  dum,  modo,  dummodo,  if  only. 

4.  Concessive  Conjunctions,  denoting  concession: 

Quamquam,  licSt,  quum,  although.  Etsi,  tSmetsI,  etiamsl,  even  if 
Quamvis,  quantumvis,  quantumlibSt,  however  much,  although.  Ut,  grant 
that.     "Ne,  grant  that  not. 

5.  Final  Conjunctions,  denoting  purpose  or  end: 

Ut,  iiti,  that,  in  order  that.  Ne,  ngve  (neu),  that  not.  Quo,  that. 
Quommus,  that  not. 

6.  Consecutive  Conjunctions,  denoting  consequence 
or  result : 

Ut,  so  that.     Ut  non,  quin,  so  that  not. 

7.  Causal  Conjunctions,  denoting  cause  : 

QuiS,  qu5d,  because.  Quum,  since.  Quoniam,  quando,  quandoqui- 
dem,  siquidem,  since  indeed. 

8.  Interrogative  Conjunctions,  denoting  inquiry  : 
Ne,  nonne,  num,  utrum,  Sn,  whether.     An  non,  necne,  or  not. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

312.  Interjections  are  certain  particles  used  as  expres- 
sions of  feeling  or  as  mere  marks  of  address.  They  may 
express 

1.  Astonishment :  5,  Mm,  eMm,  hut,  at&t,  papae,  vdh,  en,  eccS. 

2.  Joy :  id,  eu,  evoe. 

3.  Sorrow:  vae,  hex,  heu,  eheu,  ohe,  dh,  au,prd  or proh. 

4.  Disgust :  aha,  phut,  ap&gS. 

5.  Calling:  hetcs,  6,  eho,  ehSdum. 

6.  Praise :  eug^,  ejH,  hejU. 


FORMATION   OF  WORDS.  141 

CHAPTER    VI. 
FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 

313.  Words  may  be  formed  in  two  ways  : 

I.  By  Derivation  ;  i.  e.,  by  the  addition  of  certain 
endings  to  the  stems  of  other  words  :  dm6r^  love,  from 
dmOy  to  love. 

IL  By  Composition  ;  i.  e.,  by  the  union  of  two  or  more 
words  or  their  stems  :  ben^vdlens,  well-wishing,  from  b^n^, 
well,  and  volens,  wishing. 

1.  Simple  and  Compound. — ^Words  formed  by  composition  are  called 
Compounds  ;  those  not  thus  formed  are  called  Simple  Words. 

2,  Primitive  and  Derivative. — Simple  words  formed  by  derivation 
are  called  Derivatives  ;  those  not  thus  formed  are  called  Primitives. 

DERIVATION    OF    NOUNS. 

314.  Nouns  are  derived  from  other  N'ouns,  from  Ad- 
jectiveSf  and  from  Verbs. 

I.    Nouns    from    Nouns. 

315.  Diminutives  generally  end  in 

lilils,    ul5,    iilum,    culiis,    ctilS,    culiim. 


hort-iilus, 

a  small  garden^ 

from 

hortus, 

garden. 

virg-ula, 

a  small  branchy 

virga, 

branch. 

oppid-ulum, 

a  small  town, 

oppidum, 

town. 

flos-culus, 

a  small  flower. 

flos, 

flower. 

parti-cula, 

a  small  part, 

pars, 

part. 

munus-culum, 

a  small  present, 

munus, 

present. 

1.  Ulus,  tUa,  iQum,  originally  blus,  51a,  blum,  are  appended  to  a 
and  o  stems,  and  to  Dental  and  Guttural  Stems.  When  appended  to  a 
and  o  stems,  they  take  the  place  of  the  final  vowel. 

2.  The  original  forms  blus,  61a,  51um,  arc  used  after  i  or  e :  filiolus, 
little  son,  from  fllius  :  ftlidla,  little  daughter,  ivom  fllia  ;  atriolum,  small 
hall,  from  atrium. 

8.  EMus,  el-la,  ellum,  il-lus,  ilia,  ilium,  are  used  when  the  stem 


142  DERIVATION    OF   NOUNS. 

of  the  primitive  ends  in  a  or  o,  preceded  by  1,  n,  or  r :  8cel-lus,^  small  eye, 
from  dculus  ;  fobel-la,  short  fable,  from  fdbula  ;  vil-lum^  a  little  wine, 
from  vxnum. 

4.  Cuius,  cula,  culum,  are  appended  to  e,  i,  and  o  stems,  and  to 
liquid  and  s-stems,  but  stems  in  u  change  u  into  i,  and  stems  in  on 
change  O  into  u :  versi-culus,  a  little  rerse,  from  versus  ;  homun-culus,  a 
small  man,  from  h5mo.  Like  nouns  in  o,  a  few  other  words  form  diminu, 
tives  in  unculus,  uncula:  av-unculus,  maternal  uncle,  from  Hvics,  grand. 
father.2 

6.  Uleus  and  cio  are  rare:  eguuleus,  a  small  horse,  from  ^quns ; 
h5munciOy  a  small  man,  from  homo. 

316.  Patronymics,   or  names   of   descent,   generally 

end  in 

Xdes,        ides,        iSdes,         Sdes,        masculine. 
is,  eis,  ias,  as,  feminine. 

Tantal-ides,  son  of  Tantaltcs ;  Tantal-is,  daiighter  of  Tantalus. 

Thes-ides,  son  of  Theseus ;  Thes-eis,  daughter  of  Theseus. 

Laert-iades,  son  of  Laertes ;  Laert-ias,  daughter  of  Laertes. 

Thesti-ades,  son  of  Thestius ;  Thesti-as,  daughter  of  Thestius. 

1.  These  endings  take  the  place  of  the  final  stem-vowel  or  diphthong. 

2.  Ides  (J)  and  is  are  the  common  endings. 

3.  Ides  (I)  and  eis  are  used  especially  with  primitives  in  eu^. 

4.  I^des,  Sdes,  and  ias,  as,  are  used  principally  with  primitives  in 
ills,  and  in  those  in  as  and  es  of  Dec.  I. — Aeneas  has  AeneddeSj  masc,  and 
Aeneis,  fern. 

5.  Ine  and  5ne  are  rare  feminine  endings :  Neptun-ine,  daughter  of 
Neptune ;  Acrtsi-dney  daughter  of  Acrisius. 

317.  Designations  of  Place  are  often  formed  with 
the  endings 

arium,  etum,  turn,  ile.^ 

columb-arium,  a  dovecot,  from        columba. 

querc-etum,  a  forest  of  oaks,  "  quercus. 

salic-tum,  a  thicket  of  wiUows,        "  salix. 

6v-ile,  a  sheepfold,  "  ovis. 

1.  Arium  designates  the  place  where  anything  is  kept,  a  receptacle : 
aerarium,  treasury,  from  aes. 

2.  Xitiun,  turn,  used  with  names  of  trees  and  plants,  designate  the 
place  where  they  flourish :  5llveticm,  an  olive-grove,  from  5lwa. 

1  The  syllables  el  and  il  do  not  belong  to  the  ending,  but  are  produced  by  a  slight 
change  in  the  stem :  thus,  6cillus,  6cul-ulits=:dcul-lus=6cel-lus  ;  vinum,  vin-iilum= 
vin-lum = vil-lum. 

9  NUibe-cMa,  plehl-ciila,  and  vulpZ-cula,  are  formed  as  if  from  e-stems. 

8  When  appended  to  vowel-stems,  these  endings  take  the  place  of  the  final  vowel. 


DERIVATION   OF   NOUNS. 


143 


3.  lie,  used  with  names  of  animals,  designates  their  stall  or  fold: 
bdviky  stall  for  cattle,  from  bos. 

318.  Derivatives  are  also  formed  with  several  other 
endings,  especially  with 


arius,        io, 

ium,        Xtium, 

tus,  ftus, 

atus.» 

statu-arius, 

a  stattuiry^ 

from 

statua. 

lud-io, 

a  player, 

(( 

ludus. 

sScerdOt-ium, 

priesthood^ 

" 

sacerdOs. 

serv-itium, 

servitude^ 

(( 

servus. 

vir-tus, 

virtue, 

" 

vir. 

consiil-atus, 

consulship, 

(( 

consul. 

1.  Arius  and  io  generally  designate  one's  occupation. 

2.  Ium  and  itium  denote  office,  condition,  or  collection :  servitiutn^ 
servitude,  sometimes  a  collection  of  servants. 

3.  Tus  and  itus  designate  some  characteristic  or  condition :  virtus, 
manliness,  virtue,  from  vir  ;  juventus,  youth,  from  juvSnis. 

4.  Atus  denotes  rank,  office,  collection :  consulcltus,  consulship,  from 
consul ;  s^ndtus,  senate,  collection  of  old  men,  from  sSnez. 

6.  Patrial  or  Gentile  Nouns. — See  326,  2. 


II.   Nouns   from   Adjectives. 

319.  From  Adjectives  are   formed  various  Abstract 
Nouns  with  the  endings 


dlllgent-ia, 

Smlc-Itia, 

bon-itas, 

sol-itudo, 

Scr-imonia, 


itia,  itas, 

diligence, 

friendship, 

goodness, 

solitude, 

sharpness, 


Itudo, 
from 


imdnia.i 


dllTgens. 

amicus. 

bSnus. 

solus. 

ficer. 


1 
lih^r 


Itas,  taa,  Stas. — Itas  sometimes  drops  i:  Ubertds,  liberty,  from 
Stas  is  used  with  primitives  in  ius :  piSids,  piety,  from  pius.  Some- 
times the  stem  of  the  adjective  is  slightly  changed:  fdcilis,  fiicultas, 
faculty ;  diffinlis,  diffXcultas^  difficulty ;  pStens,  pStesias,  power ;  hdnestus, 
hdnestas,  honesty. 

2.  Itudo  and  itas. — A  few  adjectives  form  abstracts  with  both  these 
endings :  ^rmus,  JirmXtas,  firmitodo,  firmness.  Polysyllabic  adjectives  in 
tv^  generally  change  tus  into  tudo :  soWUntus,  solUcltudo,  solicitude. 

3.  Imonia  is  rare:  Parsim6nia=parcimonia,  parsimony,  tcomparcxis. 


1  When  appended  to  vowel-stems,  these  endings  take  the  place  of  the  final  vowel. 
This  is  true  of  all  endingfs  beginning  with  a  vowel. 


144  DERIVATION   OF   NOUNS. 

III.    Nouns  FKOM   Verbs. 

320.  From  the  Verb-stem  are  formed  Verbal  Nouns 

with  various  endings,  especially  with 

6r ;  iiim ;  mSn,  mentum ;  biilum,  culum,  brum,  crum,  trum. 

am-or,  love^  from  amo. 

gaud-ium,  joy,  "  gaudeo. 

orna-mentum,  ornament,  "  orno. 

voca-bulum,  appellation,  "  voco. 

simula-crum,  image,  "  simulo. 

1.  Or  ^  designates  the  action  or  state  denoted  by  the  verb. 

2.  lum  ^  has  nearly  the  same  force,  but  sometimes  designates  the  thing 
done :  aedificium,  edifice,  from  aedXfico. 

3.  Men  and  mentum  generally  designate  the  means  of  an  action,  or 
its  involuntary  subject:  jlumen,  a  stream,  something  which  flows,  from 
jluo  ;  agmen,  an  army  in  motion,  from  &go. 

A  connecting  vowel  is  sometimes  used:  &l-i-mentum.  The  stem  is 
sometimes  shortened  or  changed :  momentum,  moving  force,  from  moveo. 

4.  Bulum,  culimi,  brum,  crum,  trum,  designate  the  instrument  or 
the  place  of  the  action :  vehiculum,^  vehicle,  instrument  of  the  action,  from 
ve/io  ;  stabulum,  stall,  place  of  the  action,  from  sto. 

The  stem-vowel  is  sometimes  changed:  sepulcrum,  sepulchre,  from 
sSp^lio. 

5.  Ulum,  iila. —  Ulum  for  cillum  occurs  after  c  and  g :  vinc-ulum,  a 
bond,  from  vincio  ;  cing-ulum,  girdle,  from  cingo.  TJla  also  occurs : 
rigula,  rule,  from  rego. 

6.  Us,  a,  o,  sometimes  designate  the  agent  of  the  action :  coquus,  cook, 
from  coquo  ;  scrlha,  writer,  from  scrxho  ;  erro,  wanderer,  from  erro. 

7.  Ela,  ido,  igo,  and  a  few  other  endings  also  occur :  querela,  com- 
plaint, from  queror  ;  cupido,  desire,  from'  cupio  ;  orlgo,  origin,  from  orior. 

321.   From  the  Verb-stem  are  formed  Verbal  Nouns 


with  the  endings 

t6r. 

tio, 

tiis, 

tiira. 

ama-tor, 

lover, 

from 

amo. 

audl-tor, 

hear&r. 

« 

audio. 

mom-tio. 

advising. 

<( 

moneo. 

audi-tio, 

hearing. 

(( 

audio. 

audl-tus, 

hearing, 

« 

audio. 

• 

can-tus, 

singing. 

« 

cSno. 

pic-tura, 

painting, 

« 

pingo. 

*  See  foot-note,  p.  143.  3  With  connecting  vowel. 


DERIVATION    OF   ADJECTIVES. 


145 


1.  T  in  these  endings  becomes  s  when  added  to  stems  which  form  the 
Supine  stem  in  s :  vl-sio,  vistis,  sight,  vision.     See  257. 

2.  Or  denotes  the  agent  or  doer.     The  corresponding  feminine  ending 
is  trix :  victor^  conqueror ;  vidrix^  conqueress. 

8.  Tio,  tus,  and  tura,  form  abstract  nouns,  and  denote  the  act  itself. 


DERIVATION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

322.   Derivative  adjectives  are  formed   from   Nouns, 
Adjectives,  Verbs,  and  Adverbs. 

I.    Adjectives  from  Nouns. 

823.    Fulness. — Adjectives   denoting  fulness,   abun- 
dance, supply,  generally  end  in 


6su8,      Slentos,      ^entus,      atus, 

Snlm-osus,  fuU  of  courage, 

vln-61entus,  full  of  voine, 

Sp-iilentus,  opulent, 

al-atus,  winged, 

turr-itus,  iurretedy 

com-utus,  horned, 

jus-tus,  j^^^i 


Itus, 
from 


utus,      Imb} 

animus. 

vlnum. 

opes. 

fila. 

turris. 

comu. 

jus. 


324.   Material. — Adjectives  designating  the  material 
of  which  anything  is  made  generally  end  in 


eils,      inus, 
aur-eus, 
fSg-inus, 
fSg-ineiis, 
popul-nus, 
popul-neiis, 
pSpyr-aceiis, 
later-Iciiis, 


nus. 


neus 


,      aceus, 
from 


inefis, 

golden, 
of  beech, 
of  beech, 
of  poplar, 
of  poplar, 
of  papyrus, 
of  brick, 

1.  These  endings  sometimes  denote  characteristic  or  possession :  virgin- 
eus,  belonging  to  a  maiden. 

325.   Characteristic. — Adjectives  signifying  belong- 
ing to,  derived  from,  generally  end  in 


Xcius.^ 

aurum. 

fSgus. 

fagus. 

populus. 

pOpulus. 

pSpyrus. 

later. 


•  When  appended  to  vowel-stems,  these  endings  generally  take  the  place  of  the  final 
rowel,  but  «*-8tems  retain  u  before  the  ending  osus :  fructu-dsus,  fruitful. 


146 


DERIVATION    OF   ADJECTIVES. 


aris,    Srius,    ensig.^ 

from 

civis. 

u 

civis. 

..,  " 

gquus. 

(( 

rex. 

(( 

mors. 

» 

urbs. 

(( 

saius. 

« 

auxilium. 

it 

forum. 

icus,    Ills,    Inus,    ius;    alls,    anus, 

civ-icus,  relating  to  a  citizen^ 

civ-Ilis,  relating  to  a  citizen, 

equ-mus,  of,  pertaining  to  a  horse, 

reg-ius,  royal, 

mort-alis,  mortal, 

urb-Snus,  of,  pertaining  to  a  dig, 

sSlut-aris,  salutary, 

auxili-arius,  auxiliary, 

for-ensis,  forensic, 
1.  Ester,  Itimus,  ticus,  and  a  few  other  endings  occur :  camp-ester ^ 

level,  from  campus  ;  mdr-i^mus,  maritime,  from  mdre ;  rus-Ucus,  rustic, 
from  rus. 

326,  Adjectives  from  proper  nouns  generally  end  in 

Snus,  ianus,  inus;    iScus,  icus,  ius,  ensis,  iensis,  as,  aeus,  eus.^ 

Sull-anus,  of  SyUa, 

Rom-anus,  Roman, 

Ciceron-ianus,  Ciceronian, 

LSt-Inus,  Latin, 

Corinth-iacus,  Corinthian, 

Corinth-ius,  Corinthian, 

Britann-icus,  British, 

Cann-ensis,  of  Cannae, 

Athen-iensis,  Athenian, 

Rden-as,  of  Fidenae, 

Smyrn-aeus,  Smymean, 

Pythagor-eus,  Pythagorean, 

1.  Anus  and  ianus  are  the  endings  generally  used  in  derivatives  from 
Names  of  Persons  ;  but  others  also  occur. 

2.  Patrials. — Many  of  these  adjectives  from  names  of  places  are  also 
used  substantively  as  Patrial  or  Gentile  Nouns  to  designate  the  citizens 
of  the  place :   Corinthii,  the  Corinthians ;  Athenienses,  the  Athenians. 

II.    Adjectives  from  Adjectives. 

327.  Diminutives  from  other  adjectives  generally  end 
like  diminutive  nouns  (315)  in 

ulus,      ula,      ulum,      cuius,      cula,      ctilum.* 

long-iilus,  a,  um,  rather  long,         from  longus. 

pauper-ciilus,  a,  um,        rather  poor,  "  pauper. 


from 

Sulla. 

u 

Roma. 

i( 

CicSro. 

u 

LStium. 

u 

Corinthus. 

u 

Corinthus. 

(( 

Britannus. 

u 

Cannae. 

u 

Athenae. 

il 

Fidenae. 

« 

Smyrna. 

u 

Pythagoras. 

See  819,  foot-note. 


DERIVATION   OF   ADJECTIVES.  147 

1.  Olus,  ellus,  and  illus,  also  occur  as  in  nouns. 

2.  Cuius  is  sometimes  added  to  comparatives:  dUriiu-cultUf  some- 
what hard,  from  durius. 

III.    Adjectives  from  Verbs. 

328.  Verbal  adjectives  generally  end  in 
bundus,    cundus,    idus,    His,    bltlis,    ax.> 

mlra-bundus,       wondering^  from  mlror. 

ver6-cundus,       diffident^  "  vSreor. 

c51-idus,  warm^  "  cSleo. 

pSv-Idus,  fearful^  **  pfiveo. 

doc-ilis,  docile,  "  d5ceo. 

2ma-bTlis,  rtorthy  of  love,  "  Smo. 

pugn-ax,  pugnacious,  "  pugno. 

aud-ax,  daring,  "  audeo. 

1  Bundus  and  cundus  have  nearly  the  force  of  the  present  parti- 
ciple ;  but  bundles  is  somewhat  more  expressive  than  the  Part. :  laetd- 
bundus,  rejoicing  greatly ;  and  cundus  generally  denotes  some  character- 
istic rather  than  a  single  act  or  feeling :  vSre-cundus,  diflfident. 

2.  Idus  retains  the  simple  meaning  of  the  verb. 

3.  His  and  bflis  denote  capability,  generally  in  a  passive  sense: 
HmdbUis,  capable  or  worthy  of  being  loved ;  sometimes  in  an  active  sense : 
terrtbtlis,  terrible,  capable  of  producing  terror.  BHis  is  sometimes  added 
to  the  Supine  stem :  Jlex-i-bilis,  flexible. 

4.  Ax  denotes  inclination,  generally  a  faulty  one :  Viquax,  loquacious. 

5.  Uus,  ulus,  tiicius,  and  tlvus,  also  occur: — (1) uus  in  the  sense  of 
Xdus:  v&c-uus,  vacant. — (2)  ulus  in  the  sense  of  ax:  cred-ulus,  credulous, — 
(3)  ttcius  and  tivus  in  the  sense  of  the  Perf.  Part. :  fic-tXcius,  feigned,  from 
Jingo  ;  cap-iivus,  captive,  from  cUpio. 

IV.  Adjectives  from  Adverbs  and  Prepositions. 

329.  A  few  adjectives  are  formed  from  adverbs  and 
prepositions  : 

hSdiemus,  of  this  dag,  from  hodie. 

contrarius,  contrary^  "  contrfl. 

DERIVATION    OF    VERBS. 

330.  Derivative  Verbs  are  formed  from  Nouns,  Adjec- 
tives,  and  Verbs. 

>  Bee  819,  foot-note. 


148 


DERIVATION   OF   VERBS. 


I.  Verbs  from  Nouns  and  Adjectives. 

331.  Verbs  formed  from  nouns  and  adjectives  are 
called  Denominatives.     They  end  in 

Oonj.  I.                   Conj.  II.  Conj.  IV. 

io. 

from  cura. 

"  nomen. 

"  liber. 

"  flos. 

"  lux. 

"  albus. 

"  finis. 

"  mollis. 

1.  Denominatives  of  the  Second  Conjugation  are  intransitive,  but  most 
of  the  others  are  transitive. 

2.  Asco  and  esco  occur  in  Inceptives.     See  332,  II. 

3.  Deponent.  Derivatives,  like  other  verbs,  may  of  course  be  depo- 
nent :  dommor^  to  domineer,  from  dommus. 

II.   Verbs  from  Verbs. 

332.  I.  Frequentatives  denote  repeated  or  continued 
action.  They  are  of  the  first  conjugation,  and  end  in  ito, 
or  to,  sometimes  so. 


o, 

eo. 

euro. 

to  cure^ 

nomino, 

io  name, 

libero, 

to  liberate, 

floreo. 

to  bloomy 

luceo. 

to  shine, 

albeo, 

to  be  white 

finio. 

to  finish, 

moUio, 

to  soften. 

clam-ito,i 

to  exclaim. 

from 

clamo. 

vol-ito. 

toflit, 

volo. 

hab-tto. 

to  have  often, 

hSbeo. 

ag-ito. 

to  put  in  motion  often, 

ago. 

can-to. 

to  sing. 

cSno. 

cur-so, 

to  run  about. 

curro. 

1.  Primitives  of  Conj.  I.  take  Xto,  but  contraction  sometimes  takes 
place :  adju-to  for  adjuv-ito,  to  assist  often,  from  adjuvo. 

2.  So  is  used  with  primitives  which  form  the  Supine  in  sum.    See  257. 

3.  Frequentatives  may  be  formed  from  other  frequentatives :  cant-Xto, 
to  sing  often,  from  can-to,  from  (^no. 

4.  Esso  and  isso  form  derivatives  which  are  generally  classed  with 
frequentatives,  though  they  are  intensive  in  force,  denoting  earnest  rather 
than  repeated  action,  and  are  of  Conj.  III. :  facio,f&cesso,  to  do  earnestly ; 


1  Ito  takes  the  place  of  the  final  stem -vowel    This  is  true  of  all  endings  beginning 
with  a  vowel. 


DERIVATION    OF   VERBS.  149 

inctpiOy  inc(pissOf  to  begin  eagerly.     The  regular  frequentativcs  sometimes 
have  the  same  force :  r&piOy  raptOy  to  seize  eagerly. 

II.  IxcEPnvES  or  Inchoatives  denote  the  beginning  of 
the  action.     They  are  of  the  third  conjugation,  and  end  in 

asco,  esco,  isco.' 

g^-ascOj             to  begin  to  freeze^  from  gelo,  fire, 

rub-esco,            to  grow  red,  "  riibeo,  6re. 

trSm-isco,           to  begin  to  tremble^  "  trSmo,  Sre. 

obdorm-isco,       to  fall  asleep^  "  obdormio,  Ire. 

1.  Asco  is  used  in  inceptives  from  verbs  of  Conj.  I.,  and  in  a  few  from 
nouns  and  adjectives :  puh\  pit^rasco,  to  become  a  boy. 

2,  XjBCO  is  by  far  the  most  common  ending,  and  is  used  in  inceptives 
from  verbs  of  Conj.  II.,  and  in  many  from  nouns  and  adjectives :  durus^ 
duresco,  to  grow  hard. 

III.  Desideratives  denote  a  desire  to  perform  the  ac- 
tion. They  are  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  are  formed 
from  the  Supine  stem  by  adding  urio  : 

6s-urio,  to  desire  to  eat,  from     Sdo,  esum. 

empt-urio,  to  desire  to  buy,  "        emo,  emptum. 

TV.  Diminutives  denote  a  feeble  action.'  They  are  of 
the  first  conjugation,  and  end  in  illo  : 

cant-illo,  to  sing  feebly,     from  canto.^ 

conflciib-illo,  to  scribble,  "  conscribo. 

DERIVATION   OF   ADVERBS. 

333.  Adverbs  are  formed  from  JVbu7is,  Adjectives, 
Participles,  Pronouns,  and  Prepositions, 

I.   Adverbs  from  Nouns. 

334.  Adverbs  are  formed  from  Nouns 

1.  By  simply  taking  a  case-ending,  as  that  of  the  ac- 
cusative, ablative,  or  locative  : 

parttm,  partly ;  forte,  by  chance ;  jure,  with  right,  rightly ;  temp6rc, 
tempori,  in  time  ;  MH,  yesterday. 

»  See  foot-note  on  page  148. 

•  Sometimes  treated  as  Denominatives  from  supposed  Diminutive  Noons. 


150  DEEIVATION   OP   ADVERBS. 

2.  By  taking  special  endings: 

1)  atim,  tim,  denoting  manner:  grez,  grSg-Otim,  by  herds;  /wr, 
fur-tim,  by  stealth. 

2)  itus,  denoting  origin,  source:  caelum^  cael4ltts,  from  heaven; 
fundus,  fund-ittis,  from  the  foundation. 

II.  Adveebs  from  Adjectives  and  Participles. 

335.  Adverbs  from  adjectives  and  participles  generally 

end  in 

e,  ter,  Xt^r. 

dodus,  doct-dy  learnedly ;  liber,  liber-e,  freely ;  elegans,  elegan-ter,  ele- 
gantly ;  amans,  aman-ter,  lovingly ;  prudens,  prudcn-ter,  prudently ;  cUSr, 
celer-tter,  quickly. 

1.  Stems  in  o  take  e  or  it^r ;  some  both  e  and  iter :  durus,  dur-e, 
dur-iter,  hardly. 

2.  Stems  in  nt  take  t^r,  but  drop  the  final  t  of  the  stem.  See  ex- 
amples. 

3.  Adverbs  are  also  formed  with  the  endings  atim,  im,  and  itus: 
singuli,  singul-atim,  one  by  one;  passm  (part.)  pass-im,  everywhere; 
divlnus,  divin-iius,  divinely. 

4.  Certain  cases  of  adjectives  are  often  used  as  adverbs : 

1)  Neuter  accusatives  in  e,  um,  rarely  a:  facile,  easily;  mvltum^ 
multa,  much. 

2)  Ablatives  in  a,  o,  is :  dextra,  on  the  right ;  conmlto,  designedly ; 
paucis,  briefly,  in  few  words. 

3)  Accusatives  in  am :  htfariam,  in  two  parts  ;  multifariam,  ki  many 
parts  or  places  {partem,  understood). 

6.  Numeral  Adverbs. — See  181. 

III.    Adverbs   from   Pronouns. 

336.  Various  adverbs  are  formed  from  Pronouns  :  thus 

from  Ale,  ilU,  and  iste^  are  formed 

hic,  here;  hue,  hither;  hinc,  hence. 

illlc,  there;  illuc,  thither;  illinc,  thence. 

istic,  there;  istGc,  thither;  istinc,  thence. 

IV.    Adverbs   from   Prepositions. 

337.  A  few  adverbs  are  formed  from  Prepositions,  or 
are  at  least  related  to  them: 

intra,  intrd,  within ;  ultra,  uUrd,  beyond ;  tn,  intus,  within ;  sUb,  subtus. 
beneath. 


COMPOSITION   OF   WORDS.  151 

COMPOSITION    OF   WORDS. 

338.  The  elements  of  a  compound  may  unite  in  three 
distinct  ways: 

I.  The  two  elements  may  unite  without  change  of 
form:*  (Ucem-viri^  the  decemvirs,  ten  men;  db-eo,  to  go 
away. 

II.  One  element,  generally  the  first,  may  be  put  in  an 
oblique  case,  generally  the  genitive,  dependent  upon  the 
other:  legis-ldtor,  legislator,  from  lex^  legis,  and  Idtor. 

III.  The  stem  of  the  first  element  may  unite  with  the 
second  element,  or  with  its  stem:  belH-g^ro,  to  wage  war, 
from  helium  and  g^ro  y  mag?i-d}iimus,  magnanimous,  from 
magnus  and  dmmus  ;  frug-VJ^r,  fruit-bearing,  iTom  frux 
and/ero. 

1.  The  final  vowel  of  the  stem  is  often  dropped,  as  in  magn-animiis,  or 
changed,  as  in  beUi-gSro.  Sometimes  a  connecting  vowel  is  inserted 
between  the  parts  of  a  compound :  frug-x-fir^  fruit-bearing. 

2.  Prepositions  in  Composition  admit  the  following  euphonic  changes. 
A,  Sb,  abs: — a  before  m  and  v  ;   aha  before  e,  jo,  t ;  &h  before  the 

vowels  and  the  other  consonants :  a-mitto  ;  abs-condo ;  &b-€o,  ab-jicio. 
But  abs  before  p  drops  b :  as-porto  for  abs-porto.  Ab  becomes  au  in  an- 
firo  and  ait-fugio. 

Ad, — unchanged  before  vowels  and  before  6,  </,  A,  y,  m,  and  v  ;  d  gen- 
erally assimilated  before  the  other  consonants,  but  changed  to  c  before  q 
and  dropped  before  gn  and  often  before  sc,  sp,  and  st :  Hd-eo,  ad-do,  ad- 
jungo  ;  af-fSro,  al-tigo  ;  ac-qm.ro,  a-gnosco  {ad  and  gnosco),  a-scendo. 

Ante, — the  original  form  anti,  retained  in  and-cipo  and  anti-sto. 

Oirciim, — unchanged,  except  in  circu-eo. 

06m  for  cum, — (1)  unchanged  before  b,  m,p:  com-bibo,  com-miito, — 
(2)  m  generally  dropped  before  vowels,  h,  and  gn :  co-eo,  co-haero,  co-gnosco, 
— (3)  m  assimilated  before  I,  n,  r:  col-lXgo,  cor-rumpo, — (4)  m  changed  to 
n  before  the  other  consonants :  con-firo,  con-gSro. 

E,  ex : — ex  before  vowels  and  before  c,  h,  p,  q,  s,  t,  and  with  assimi- 
lation before/;  e  generally  before  the  other  consonants  and  sometimes 
before  p  and  s :  ex-eo,  ex-pono,  ef-f^ro  ;  e-duco,  e-JXgo,  e-pdto,  e-scendo.  S 
after  ex  is  often  dropped :  exspecto  or  expecto. 

In, — n  assimilated  before  /,  m,  r,  changed  to  m  before  6,  p  ;  in  other 
gituations  imchanged :  il-ludo,  im-mitto  ;  im-buo,  im-p5no  ;  in-eo,  in-dHcOi 

>  Except  of  course  eapbonic  chan; ea. 


152  COMPOSITION   OP  WORDS. 

IntSr, — unchanged,  except  in  intel-ligo. 

Ob, — ^b  assimilated  before  c,  /,  p  ;  in  other  situations  generally  un. 
changed :  oc-curro,  of-ficio,  op-pono  ;  ob-jicio,  oh-sto.  But  b  is  dropped  in 
d-mitio,  and  an  old  form  obs  occurs  in  a  few  words :  obs-olesco,  os-tendo  for 
obs-tendo  {b  dropped). 

Per, — unchanged,  except  in  pel-Iicio,  pel-luceo,  and  pe-j^ro. 

Post,  unchanged  except  in  po-moerium  and  po-mertdianus. 

Pro,  pr5d  -.—prod  the  usual  form  before  a  vowel :  prod-eo,  prdd4go. 

Sub, — ^b  assimilated  before  c,f,g,p,  generally  before  m  and  r :  dropped 
before  sp  ;  in  other  situations  unchanged :  8uc-cumbo,  suspicio  for  sub- 
spicio  ;  sub-eo,  sub-duco.  An  old  form  sicbs  shortened  to  sus  occurs  in  a 
few  words :  sus-cipio,  sus-pendo. 

Trans  drops  s  before  s,  and  often  ns  before  d,  j,  n :  trans-eo,  trans- 
fSro  ;  tran-silio  for  trans-siHo  ;  trU-do  for  trans-do  ;  tra-jicio  for  trans- 
jtcio  ;  trd-no  for  trans-no. 

3.  Inseparable  Prepositions  (SOY)  also  admit  euphonic  changes : 

Ambi,  amb : — amb  before  vowels  ;  ambi,  am,  or  an  before  conso- 
nants :  amb-igo  ;  ambx-dens,  am-puto,  an-quiro. 

Dis,  di :  dis  before  c,  p,  q,  t,  s  before  a  vowel,  and  with  assimilation, 
before/;  di  in  most  other  situations:  dis-curro,  dis-pono,  dif-Jiuo ;  dl- 
duco,  di-m5veo.  But  dir  occurs  in  dir-imo  and  dir-ibeo  {dis  and  habeo), 
and  both  dis  and  di  occur  before  j :  dis-jungo,  di-judico. 

In, — n  dropped  before  gn :  i-gnosco  ;  otherwise  like  the  prep,  in  above. 

Por, — ^r  assimilated  before  I  and  s ;  in  other  situations  unchanged : 
pol-liceor,  pos-sideo,  por-rxgo. 

Red,  re : — rM  before  vowels,  before  A,  and  in  red-do  ;  r^  in  other  situ- 
ations :  rM-eo,  red-xgo,  red-hxbeo  ;  re-clddo,  re-vello. 

Sed,  se :  sed  before  vowels,  se  before  consonants :  sed-itio,  se-pdno. 

339.  In  Compound  Nouns,  the  first  part  is  generally  a 
noun,  but  sometimes  an  adjective,  adverb,  or  preposition  ; 
the  second  part  is  a  verb  or  noun  : 

from  ars  and  facio. 

"  caper  and  cornu. 

"  aequus  and  nox. 

"  ne  and  homo. 

"  prO  and  nomen. 

1.  Genitive  in  Compounds. — In  compounds  of  two  nouns,  or  of  a  noun 
and  an  adjective,  the  first  part  is  often  a  genitive :  Ugis-lator,  legislator ; 
juris-consultu^,  lawyer, 

2.  Compounds  in  fex,  cen,  and  cbla,  are  among  the  most  important 
compounds  of  nouns  and  verbs ;  fex  from  f(icio  ;  cSn  from  cUno  ;  cola  from 
'c6lo :  artx-fex,  artist ;  tubx-cen,  trumpeter ;  &gri-cdla,  husbandman. 


artt-fex. 

artist, 

capri-cornus, 
aequi-noctium, 
ne-mo, 
pro-nomen. 

Capricorn, 
equinox, 
nobody, 
pronoun. 

COMPOSITION   OP   WORDS.  153 

340.  In  Compound  Adjeciives,  the  first  part  is  gen- 
erally a  noun,  adjective,  or  preposition,  and  the  second  a 
noun,  adjective  or  verb: 

letT-fer,  death-hearing,       from        l6tum  and  fero. 

magn-immus,  magnanimous,  "  magnus  and  Snimus. 

per-faeHis,  very  easy,  •       "  per  and  fScIlis. 

341.  In  Compound  Verbs  the  first  part  is  a  noun, 
adjective,  verb,  adverb,  or  preposition,  and  the  second  is  a 
verb: 


aedl-fico, 

to  build. 

from 

aedes  and  fScio. 

ampll-fico, 

to  enlarge, 

i( 

amplus  and  fScio. 

pSte-f^cio, 

to  open. 

t( 

pSteo  and  fScio. 

beng-ficio, 

to  benejit. 

(t 

bene  and  fScio. 

ab-eo, 

to  go  away. 

u 

Sb  and  eo. 

1.  When  the  first  part  is  a  verb,  the  second  is  genersWy  fUcio :  p&U- 
f&cio. 

2.  When  the  first  part  is  a  noun  or  adjective,  the  second  is  generally 
f&cio  or  Hgo.  These  verbs  then  become  fico  and  igo  of  Conj.  I. : 
aedi-ftco,  Sre,  to  build ;  ndv-Xgo,  are,  to  sail,  from  ncLvis  and  &go. 

3.  Verbs  compounded  with  prepositions  often  undergo  certain  vowel- 
changes. 

1)  ^  short  and  ^generally  become t;  Mbeo,  M-hibeo  ;  tSnco,  con-tXneo. 
But  a  sometimes  becomes  e  ov  u:  carpo,  de-cerpo  ;  calco,  con-culco. 

2)  Ae  becomes  I :  caedo,  in-cido. 

S)  Au  generally  becomes  o  or  m  ;  plaudo,  ez-plodo  ;  claudo,  in-cludo. 

4.  Changes  in  Prepositions. — See  338,  2  and  3. 

342.  Compound  Adverbs  are  variously  formed,  but 
most  of  them  may  be  divided  into  three  classes: 

1.  Such  as  consist  of  an  oblique  case  with  its  preposition:  ad-mddum, 
very,  to  the  full  measure ;  ob-viam,  in  the  way. 

2.  Such  as  consist  of  a  noun  with  its  adjective :  hd-diS  {hoc  and  dii),  to- 
day, on  this  day ;  qud-rd,  wherefore,  by  which  thing. 

8.  Such  as  consist  of  two  particles :  Hd-huc,  hitherto ;  inter-dum,  some- 
times ;  in-iUp^r,  moreover. 


PART  THIRD. 

SYNTAX 


CHAPTEE   I. 
SYNTAX    OF    SENTENCES, 


SECTION  I. 
CLASSIFICATION    OF  SENTENCES. 

343.  Syxtax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

344.  A  sentence  is  thought  expressed  in  language. 

345.  In  their  structure,  sentences  are  either  Simple^ 
Complex^  or  Compound : 

I.  A  Simple  Sentence  expresses  but  a  single  thought : 
Deus  mundum  aedif  ieavit,  Ood  made  the  world.     Cic. 

II.  A  Complex  Sentence  expresses  two  (or  more) 
thoughts  so  related  that  one  is  dependent  upon  the  other : 

D5nec  Sris  ftlix,  multos  numerabia  amicos ;  So  long  as  you  are  pros- 
perv-us^  you  will  number  many  friends.     Ovid. 

1.  Clatjses.— In  this  example  two  simple  sentences,  (1)  '■'^You  xciU  he  prosper' 
ous,"^  and  (2)  '■'^Tou  will  nv/niber  many  friends,''''  are  so  united  that  the  first  only 
specifies  the  time  of  the  second:  You  will  number  many  friends  (when  ?),  so  long 
as  yot^  are  prosperous.    The  parts  thus  united  are  called  Causes  or  Members. 

2.  Pbincipal  and  Subordinate. — The  part  of  the  complex  sentence  which 
makes  complete  sense  of  itself— multos  numerdbis  amicos— is  called  the  Principal 
Clause;  and  the  part  which  is  dependent  upon  it — donee  eris  felix— is  called  the 
Subordinate  Clause. 

III.  A  Compound  Sentence  expresses  two  or  more  in- 
dependent thoughts : 

Sol  rnit  et  montea  umbrantur,  The  sun  descends  and  the  mountains  are 
shaded.  Virg. 

346.  In  their  use,  sentences  are  either  Declarative^  In- 
terrogative, Imperative,  or  JEJxclamatory, 

I.  A  Declarative  Sentence  has  the  form  of  an  asser- 
tion : 

MiltiSdes  accusatus  est,  Miltiades  was  accused.  Nep. 


CLASSIFICATION    OP   SEXTEXCES.  165 

II.  An  Interrogative  Sentence  has  the  form  of  a 
question : 

Quis  non  paupei-tatem  extlmescit,  Who  does  not  fear  poverty  ?     Cic 

1.  Interrogative  Words. — Interrogative  sentences  generally  contain 
some  interrogative  word — either  an  interrogative  pronoun,  adjective,  or  ad- 
verb, or  one  of  the  interrogative  particles,  n«,  nonne,  num  : 

1)  Questions  with  ne  ask  for  Information:  Scribitne,  Is  ho  writing?  Ne  is 
always  thas  appended  to  some  other  word.  But  fie  appended  to  the  principal  verb 
©ften  suggests  the  answer  yes,  while  appended  to  any  other  word,  it  often  suggests 
the  answer  no.  It  is  sometimes  appended  to  utrum,  num,  or  an,  without  affecting 
their  meaning,  and  sometimes  inserted  in  the  clause  after  utrum  : 

Utrum  triceamne,  an  praedlcem,  SfuiU  I  Je  8ile}it,  or  vhall  I  speak  f    Ter. 

2)  Questions  with  nonne  expect  the  answer  yes:  Nonne  scribit,  Is  he  not 
writing  ?  2^on  for  nonns  indicates  surprise  that  there  should  be  any  doubt  on  the 
question  :  yon  v)des.  Do  you  really  not  see? 

8)  Questions  with  nu7n  expect  the  answer  no :  yum  scribit.  Is  he  writing? 

4)  Questions  with  an.    See  2.  4)  below. 

5)  The  interrogative  word  is  sometimes  omitted,  and  sometimes  numquid  is 
used  for  num,  and  ecquid  for  ne  or  nonne :  Ecquid  vldes,  Do  you  not  see? 

2.  Double  Qdestions.  —Double  or  disjunctive  questions  offer  a  choice 
or  alternative,  and  generally  take  one  of  the  following  forms  • 

1)  The  first  clause  has  utrum,  num,  or  ne,  and  the  second  an  : 
Utrum  ea  vestra  an  nostra  culpa  est,  Is  that  yourfatilt  or  ours  T    Cic. 

2)  The  first  clause  omits  the  particle,  and  the  second  has  an  or  ne  : 
E16quar  an  siloara.  Shall  I  utter  it,  or  keep  silence  t    Vlrg. 

8)  When  the  second  clause  is  negative,  the  i>artlcle  generally  unites  with  the 
negative,  giving  annon  or  necne: 

Sunt  haec  tua  verba  necne.  Are  these  your  words  or  not  f    Cic. 

4)  By  the  omission  of  the  first  clause,  the  second  often  stands  alone  with  an,  in 
the  sense  of  or : 

An  hoc  timC-mus,  Or  do  we/ear  this  t    Liv. 

6)  Other  forms  are  rare. 

3.  Answers. — In  answers  the  verb  or  some  emphatic  word  is  usually 
repeated,  often  with,  prorsus,  vero,  and  the  like;  or  if  negative,  with  non: 

Dixitne  causam  ?  Dixit  Did  he  state  the  cause  f  He  stated  it.  Cic.  Pos- 
sumusne  tuti  esse?    Non  possumus.     Can  we  be  safe  t     We  cannot.    Cic. 

1)  Sometimes  the  simple  particle  is  used;  aflBrmatively,  sdne,  itiam,  Ita,  vero, 
terte,  etc,  negatively,  non,  mlnlme,  eta 

Venitne?    Non.    Eat  he  comet    No.    Plant  * 

III.  An  Imperative  Sentence  has  the  form  of  a  com- 
mand, exhortation,  or  entreaty : 

Justltiam  c61e.  Cultivate  justice.     Cic. 

TV.  An  Exclamatory  Sentence  has  the  form  of  an 
exclamation : 

Rellquit  quos  vlros,  What  heroes  he  has  left !     Cic. 
Exclamatory  sentences  are  often  elliptloaL 


156  SIMPLE   SENTENCES. 

SECTION  II. 

simple  sentences. 

Elements  of  Sentences. 

347.  The  simple  sentence  in  its  most  simple  form  con- 
sists  of  two  distinct  parts,  expressed  or  implied  : 

1 .  The  Subject,  or  that  of  which  it  speaks. 

2.  The  Predicate,  or  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject : 

Cluilius  moritur,  Cluilius  dies.    Liv, 

Here  Cluilius  is  the  subject,  and  morlUir  the  predicate. 

348.  The  simple  sentence  in  its  most  expanded  form 
consists  only  of  these  same  parts  with  their  various  modi- 
fiers: 

In  his  castris  Cluilius,  Albanus  rex,  moritur  ;  Cluilius^  the  Alhan  king, 
diis  in  this  camp.     Liv. 

Here  Cluilius,  Albanus  rex,  is  the  subject  in  its  enlarged  or  modified  form,  and 
in  Ms  castris  moritur  is  the  predicate  in  its  enlarged  or  modified  form. 

349.  Principal  and  Subordinate. — The  subject  and 
predicate,  being  essential  to  the  structure  of  every  sen- 
tence, are  called  the  Principal  or  Essential  elements ;  but 
their  modifiers,  being  subordinate  to  these,  are  called  the 
Subordinate  elements. 

350.  Simple  and  Complex. — The  elements,  whether 
principal  or  subordinate,  may  be  either  simple  or  complex : 

1.  Simple^  when  not  modified  by  other  words. 

2.  Complex^  when  thus  modified. 

Simple  Subject. 

351.  The  subject  of  a  sentence,  expressed  or  implied, 
must  be  a  noun  or  some  word  or  words  used  as  a  noun : 

Rex  decrevit.  The  king  decreed.  Nep.  Ego  scribo,  /  write.  Cic 
Video  idem  valet.  The  word  video  has  the  same  meaning.  Quint. 

Complex  Subject. 

352.  The  subject  admits  the  following  modifiers  : 

I.  An  Adjective  : 

Popiilus  Romanus  decrevit,  TJie  Roman  people  decreed.  Cic. 

II.  A  Noun  either  in  apposition  with  the  subject,  in 
the  genitive,  or  in  an  oblique  case  with  a  preposition ; 


SIMPLE   SENTENCES.  157 

Cluilius  rex  m5ritur,  Cluilius  the  king  dies.  Liv.  Rex  RuWdrumy  the 
Icing  of  the  Rutuli.  Liv.     Liber  de  offtciis^  The  book  on  dviies.  Cic. 

1.  Modifiers  op  Nouns. — Any  noun  may  be  modified  like  the  subject. 

2.  Appositive  and  its  Subject. — The  noun  in  apposition  with  another 
is  called  an  Appositive,  and  the  other  noun  is  called  the  Sulject  of  the 
appositive. 

3.  Adverbs  with  Nouns. — Sometimes  adverbs  and  adverbial  expres- 
sions occur  as  modifiers  of  nouns : 

Non  ignSri  sumus  ante  mSlorum,  We  are  not  ignorant  of  past  misfor- 
.tvnes.  Virg.    Victoria  fipud  Cnidum,  The  victor^/  at  Cnidxis.  Nep. 

Simple  Predicate. 

353.  The  simple  predicate  must  be  either  a  verb  or  the 
copula  sum  with  a  noun  or  adjective : 

MiltiSdes  est  aociisatus,  Miltiades  was  accused.  Nep.  Tu  es  testis, 
You  are  a  vntness.  Cic.     Fortiina  caeca  est,  Fortune  is  blind.  Cic. 

1.  Like  Sum  several  other  verbs  sometimes  unite  with  a  noun  or  adjec- 
tive to  form  the  predicate.  See  362.  2.  A  noun  or  adjective  thus  used  is 
called  a  Predicate  Koun  or  I^edicate  Adjective. 

2.  Sum  with  an  Adverb  sometimes  forms  the  predicate  : 
Omnia  recte  sunt,  All  things  are  right.  Cic. 

Complex  Predicate. 

354.  I.     The  Verb  admits  the  following  modifiers  : 
I.  Objective  Modifiers  : 

1.  A  Direct  Object  in  the  Accusative — that  upon  which 
the  action  is  directly  exerted  ; 

Miltiades  Athenas  llberSvit,  Miltiades  liberated  Atliens.  Nep. 

2.  An  Indirect  Object  in  the  Dative — that  to  or  for 
which  something  is  or  is  done  : 

L&bOri  student,  TTiei/  devote  themselves  to  labor.  Caes. 

3.  Combined  Objects  consisting  of  two  or  more  cases : 

3fe  rogSvit  sententiam^  He  asked  me  my  opinion.  Cic.  Pons  Iter  hoS' 
tibus  dedit,  TTie  bridge  furnished  a  passage  to  the  enemy.  Liv. 

II.  Adverbial  Modifiers  : 

1.  Adverbs: 

BftXh,  felldter  gessit,  He  waged  wars  successfully.  Cic. 

2.  Adverbial  Expressions— <iOi\?>\^tm^  of  oblique  cases 
of  nouns,  with  or  without  prepositions: 


158  COMPLEX   SENTENCES. 

In  his  castris  moritur,  He  dies  (where  ?)  in  this  camp.  Liv.  Vere  con* 
vengre,  Thei/  assembled  (when  ?)  in  the  spring.  Liv. 

355.  11.  The  Predicate  ISToun  is  modified  in  the  va- 
nous  ways  specified  for  the  subject  (352). 

356.  III.  The  Pbedicate  Adjective  admits  the  fol- 
lowing modifiers : 

I.  An  Adverb  : 

SStis  humilis  est,  He  is  sufficiently/  humble.  Liv. 
n.  A  Noun  in  an  oblique  case  : 

1.  Genitive:  Avidi  laudis  fuerunt,  They  were  desiraus  of  praise.  Cic. 

2.  Dative :  Omni  aetati  mors  est  communis,  Death  is  common  to  every 
age.  Cic. 

3.  Ablative :  Digni  sunt  Smicitia,  Theg  are  worthy  of  friendship.  Cic. 

SECTION  III. 
COMPLEX  SEKTEKCES. 

357.  A  Complex  sentence  differs  from  a  Simple  one 
only  in  taking  a  sentence  or  clause  as  one  (or  more)  of  its 
elements : 

I.  A  Sentence  as  an  Element ; 

"  Clvis  Romanus  sum"  audiebatur,  ^^  I  am  a  Roman  citizen''''  was 
heard.  Cic.  Aliquis  dicat  mihi :  "  Nulla  hSbes  vitia ;  "  Some  one  may  say 
to  me,  "  Have  you  no  faults  ?  "  Hor. 

1.  In  the  first  example,  an  entire  sentence — Civis  Romanus  sum — is 
used  as  the  Subject  of  a  new  sentence ;  and  in  the  second  example,  the  sen 
tence — Nulla  habes  vitia — is  the  Object  of  dicat. 

2.  Any  sentence  may  be  thus  quoted  and  introduced  without  change 
of  form  as  an  element  in  a  new  sentence. 

II.  A  Clause  as  an  Element : 

TrSditum  est  Homerum  caecum  fuisse.  That  Homer  was  blind  has  been 
landed  down  by  tradition.  Cic.  Qualis  sit  animus,  Animus  nescit.  The 
sovl  knows  not  what  the  soul  is.  Cic. 

1.  In  these  examples  the  clauses  used  as  elements  have  undergone  cer- 
tain changes  to  adapt  them  to  their  subordinate  rank.  The  clause  Homerum 
4aecum  fuisse,  the  subject  of  traditum  est,  if  used  as  an  independent  sen- 
tence, would  be  Hom^rus  caecusfuit ;  and  the  clause  Qualis  sit  animus,  the 
object  oi  nescit,  would  be  Qualis  est  animus.  What  is  the  soul  ? 

2.  Forms  of  Subordinate  Clauses. 

1)  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative : 

Hoc  majores  dlc5re  audivi,  I  have  heard  that  oivr  ancestors  said  this.  Cic 

2)  Indirect  Questions : 


COMPOUND   SBNTBNCES.  159 

Quid  dies  fSrat,  inoertnm  oat,  What  a  day  may  bring  forth  U  uneertain.  Cic. 
8)  Relative  Clauses : 

Sententia,  quae  tutisslma  rldCbatur,  The  opinion  which  teemed  the  ea/eet.  Lir. 
4)  Clauses  with  Conjunctions  : 

Mos  est  ut  dlcat,  It  is  his  ctistom  to  speak.  Cic.    Priusquam  lucet,  adsunt,  ITiey 
are  present  hefore  it  is  light.  Cic. 

358.  Infinitive  Clauses  sometimes  drop  their  subjects : 

Dlllgi  jucundum  est,  It  is  pleasant  to  be  loved.  Cic.     VlvSre  est  cOgl- 
tare,  To  live  is  to  think.  Cic.     See  545.  2. 

359.  Participles  often  supply  the  place  of  subordinate 
clauses. 

Plato  scrlbens  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  while  loriting^  or  while  he  was 
writing.  Cic.    See  576-578. 

SECTION  IV. 
COMPOUND   SENTENCES. 

360.  Compound  sentences  express  two  or  more  inde- 
pendent thoughts,  and  are  of  five  varieties  : 

I.  Copulative   Sentences — in   which   two   or  more 
thoughts  are  presented  in  harmony  with  each  other : 

Sol  ruit  et  montes  umbrantur,  The  sun  descends  and  the  mountains  are 
shaded.  Virg. 

n.  Disjunctive  Sentences — in  which  a  choice  be- 
tween two  or  more  thoughts  is  offered  : 

Audendum  est  Sliquid  aut  omnia  pStienda  sunt,  Something  must  be 
risked  or  all  things  must  be  endured.  Liv. 

m.  Adversative  Sentences — in  which  the  thoughts 
are  opposed  to  each  other : 

Gyges  a  nullo  vMebatur,  ipse  autem  omnia  vidgbat,  Ogges  was  seen  by 
no  one,  but  he  himself  saw  all  things.  Cic. 

IV.  Illative  Sentences — which  contain  an  inference : 

Nihil  laboras,  Idco  nihil  hSbes ;   You  do  nothing^  therefore  you  have 
nothing.  Phaed. 

V.  Causal  Sentences — which  contain  a  cause  or  rea* 
son : 

Difficile  est  consilium,  sum  6mm  sOlus ;  Consultation  is  difficuUy  for 
I  am  alone.  Cic 


160  COMPOUND   SENTENCES. 

1.  The  Connectives  generally  used  in  these  several  classes  of  compounds  arw 
the  corresponding  classes  of  conjunctions,  1.  e.,  copulative,  disjunctwe,  adversative, 
illative,  and  causal  conjunctions.    See  310,    But  the  connective  is  often  omitted. 

2.  Disjunctive  Questions  have  special  connectives.    See  346.  II.  2. 

361.  Compound  sentences  are  generally  abridged  when 
their  members  have  parts  in  common.  Such  sentences 
have  compound  elements  : 

1.  Compound  Subjects ; 

Aborigines  Trojanique  ddcem  amisere,  The  Aborigines  and  the  Tro- 
jans lost  their  leader.  Liv. 

The  two  members  here  united  are :  Aborigines  ducem  amisere  and  Tro^dni 
ducem  amisere;  but  as  they  have  the  same  predicate,  ducem  amisere,  that  predi- 
cate is  expressed  but  once,  and  the  two  subjects  are  united  into  the  compound  sub- 
ject: Aborigines  Trojanique. 

2.  Compound  Predicates : 

Romani  parant  consultantque,  The  Romans  prepare  and  consult.  Liv. 

3.  Compound  Modifiers  : 

Athgnas  Graeciamque  libSravit,  He  liberated  Athens  and  Greece.  Nep. 


CHAPTER    11. 
SYNTAX    OF    NOUNS, 


SECTION  I. 

AGREEMENT  OF  NOUNS. 

ETJLE  I.— Predicate  Nouns. 
362.  A  Predicate  Noun  denoting  the  same  person 
or  thing  as  its  Subject  agrees  with  it  in  case  :  * 

Ego  sum  nuntius,  I  am  a  messenger.  Liv.  Servius  rex  est  declarStus, 
Servius  was  declared  king.  Liv.  Orestem  se  esse  dixit,  He  said  that  he 
toax  Orestes.  Cic.     See  353. 

1.  In  Gendee  and  Number  Agreement  either  may  or  may  not 
take  place.     But 

1)  If  the  Predicate  Noun  has  different  forms  for  different  genders,  it 
must  agree  with  its  subject  in  gender : 

Usus  magister  est,  Experience  is  an  instructor.  Cic.  HistSria  est  magistra  (not 
magister),  History  is  an  instructress.  Cic. 

*  For  Pred.  Noun  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing  from  its  subject,  see  401. 
For  convenience  of  reference  the  Eule«  will  be  presented  in  a  body  on  page  274. 


AGREEMENT    OF    NOUNS.  161 

2.  With  Finite  Verbs. — Predicate  Nouns  are  most  frequent 

1)  With  Sum  and  a  few  intransitive  verbs  .*  evddo,  exsisio,  appdreo,and. 
the  like : 

Ego  sum  cuntius,  /  am  a  messenger.  Li  v.  Homo  magnus  cvuserat,  I/e  had 
become  (turned  out)  a  great  man.  Cic.  Exstitit  vindex  llbertatis,  He  became  (stood 
forth)  the  defender  of  liberty.  Cic. 

2)  With  Passive  verbs  of-  appointing,  making,  naming,  regarding,  es- 
teeming, and  the  like : 

Servlus  rex  est  declurutus,  Servius  teas  declared  king.  Liv.  Mundus  civitaa 
•xlstimatur,  The  world  is  regarded  as  a  state.  Cic. 

(1)  In  the  poets,  Predicate  Nouns  are  used  with  great  freedom  after  verbs  of  a 
great  variety  of  significations.  Thus  with  audio  =  appellor :  Rex  audlsti,  You  have 
been  called  king;  i.  e.,  have  heard  yourself  so  called.  Hor. 

(2)  For  Predicate  Accusative,  see  873.  1. 

(8)  The  Dative  of  the  object  for  which  (390),  pro  with  the  AbL,  and  loco  or  in 
namiro  with  the  Gen.  are  often  kindred  in  fm-ce  to  Predicate  Nouns :  hosti,  pro 
hoste,  Idco  hostis,  in  niimiro  hostium,  for  or  as  an  enemy.    See  also  Pred.  Gen.  401. 

3.  With  Infinitives,  Pahticiples,  etc. — Predicate  Nouns  are  used  not 
only  with  finite  verbs,  but  also  with  Infinitives  and  Participles,  and  some- 
times without  verb  or  participle  : 

Dcclaratus  rex  Niima,  Kuma  having  bMn  declared  king.  Liv.  Cininlo  con- 
Biile,  Caninius  being  consul.  Cic.    See  481,  also  Orestem  under  the  rule. 

1)  For  Predicate  Nominative  after  c«»c,  see  547. 

2)  For  Liflnitive  or  Clause  as  Predicate,  see  553,  L  ;  495,  8. 

ETJLE  n.--Appositives. 
363.  An  Appositive  agrees  witli  its  Subject  in  case  : 

Cluilius  rex  moritur,  Cluilius  the  king  dies.  Liv.  TJrbes  Carthago 
atque  Numantia,  Uie  cities  Cardiage  and  N'umantia.  Cic.     See  352.  2. 

1.  In  Gender  and  Number  the  appositive  conforms  to  the 
same  rule  as  the  predicate  noun.     See  362.  1. 

2.  The  Subject  of  the  appositive  is  often  omitted  ; 

Hostis  hostem  occldere  volui,  /  (ego  understood)  a7i  enemy  wished  to 
slay  an  enemy.  Liv. 

3.  Force  of  Appositives. — Appositives  are  generally  kindred  in  force 
to  Relative  clauses,  but  sometimes  to  Temporal  clauses : 

Cluilius  rex,  Cluilius  (who  was)  th«  hing.  Liv.  Furius  pucr  d!dlcit,  Furiua 
learned,  when  a  boy,  or  as  a  boy.  Cic. 

4.  Partitive  Appositive. — The  parts  are  sometimes  in  apposition  with 
the  whole : 

Duo  r^ges,  lUe  bello,  blc  p5ce  civltatem  aux^runt,  Two  kings  advanced  ths 
»tate,  the  former  by  war,the  latter  by  peace.  Liv. 

Conversely  the  whole  may  be  in  apposition  with  its  parts. 

5.  Clauses. — A  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  in  apposition  with  a  clause, 
or  a  clause  in  apposition  with  a  noun  or  pronoun.     See  445,  7 ;  553,  II. 


162  NOMINATIVE   CASE, 

SECTION"  II. 

NOMINATIVE. 

364.  Cases. — Nouns  have  different  forms  or  cases  to 
mark  the  various  relations  in  which  they  are  used.  These 
cases,  in  accordance  with  their  general  force,  may  be  ar- 
ranged and  characterized  as  follows  : 

I.  Nominative,  Case  of  the  Subject. 

II.  Vocative,  Case  of  Address. 

III.  Accusative,  Case  of  Direct  Object. 

IV.  Dative,  Case  of  Indirect  Object. 

V.  Genitive,  Case  of  Adjective  Relations. 

VI.  Ablative,  Case  of  Adverbial  Relations.* 

365.  Kindred  Cases. — The  cases  naturally  arrange  themselves  in 
pairs  :  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  require  no  governing  word  ;  the  Ac- 
cusative and  Dative  are  the  regular  cases  of  the  Object  of  an  action  ;  the 
Genitive  has  usually  the  force  of  an  Adjective,  and  the  Ablative  that  of  an 
Adverb. 

366.  Nominative. — The  l^ominative  is  either  the  Sub- 
ject of  a  Sentence  or  in  agreement  with  another  Nomina- 
tive. 

RULE  m— Subject  Nominative. 

367.  The  Subject  of  a  Finite  Yerb  is  put  in  the 
Kominative :  '^ 

Servius  regnavit,  Servius  reigned.  Liv.  PStent  portae,  The  gates  are 
open.  Cic.     Rex  vicit,  The  king  conquered.  Liv. 

1.  The  Subject  is  always  a  substantive,  a  pronoun,  or  some 
word  or  clause  used  substantively : 

Ego  reges  ejeci,  /  have  banished  kings.  Cic. 

2.  Subject  Omitted. — The  subject  is  generally  omitted 

1)  When  it  is  a  Personal  Pronoun,  unless  expressed  for  contrast  or 
emphasis,  and  when  it  can  be  readily  supplied  from  the  context : 

Discipulos  m6neo,  ut  studia  ament,  /  instruct  pupils  to  love  their  studies. 
Quint. 

2)  When  it  means  men,  people  :  Ferunf,  They  say. 

3)  When  the  verb  is  impersonal :  Pluit,  It  rains. 

3.  Verb  Omitted. — The  Yerb  is  sometimes  omitted,  when  it 
can  be  readily  supplied,  especially  est  and  sunt : 

*  This  arrangement  is  adopted  in  the  discussion  of  the  cases,  because,  it  is  thought, 
it  will  best  present  the  force  of  the  several  cases  and  their  relation  to  each  other. 

^  For  the  Subject  of  the  Infinitive,  see  545.  For  the  agreement  of  the  verb  with 
Its  subject,  see  460. 


NOMINATIVE.      VOCATIVE.  163 

iCcce  tuae  littfirae,  Lo  your  letter  (comes).  Cic.  Tot  sententiae,  There 
are  (sunt)  so  many  opini&tis.  Ter.  Consul  prSfectus  (est),  The  consul  set 
out.  Liv. 

1)  Fdcio  is  often  omitted  in  short  sentences  and  clauses.  Thus  with  nihU  dUud 
(amplius,  minus,  etc.)  quam,  nihil  praeterquam  =  merely,  si  nihil  dliud, 
flnem^cic  :  Nihil  uliud  quam  sttterunt.  They  merely  stood  (did  nothing  other  than). 
Liv.    Also  in  brief  expressions  of  opinion :  Recte  illc,  He  does  rightly.  Cic. 

368.  Agbeement. — A  Nominative  in  agreement  with 
another  nominative  is  either  a  Predicate  Noun  or  an  Ap- 
positive.     See  362  and  363. 

For  the  Predicate  Nominative  after  a  verb  with  esse,  see  647. 
SECTION  m. 

VOCATIVK 

EULE  rV.-Case  of  Address. 

369.  The  Name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  ia 
put  in  the  Vocative : 

Perge,  Laeli,  Proceed,  Laelius.  Cic.  Quid  est,  CStlllna,  Why  is  itj 
Catiline  ?  Cic.  Tuum  est,  Servi,  regnum,  The  kingdom  is  yours,  Servius. 
Liv.     0  dii  immortales,  0  immortal  gods.  Cic. 

1.  With  Interjections. — The  vocative  is  used  both  with  and  without 
interjections. 

2.  Nominative  for  Vocative. — In  poetry  and  sometimes  in  prose,  the 
nominative  in  apposition  with  the  subject  occurs  where  we  should  expect 
the  vocative : 

Audi  to,  p5pulu3  Albanus,  ITear  ye,  Alban  people.  Liv.  Here  popHlus  maj 
be  treated  as  a  Nom.  in  apposition  with  <u,  though  it  may  also  be  treated  as  an  irreg- 
ular Voc.    See  52,  3. 

3.  Vocative  for  Nominative. — Conversely  the  vocative  by  attraction 
sometimes  occurs  in  poetry  where  we  should  expect  the  nominative  : 

Quibus,  Hector,  ab  oris  exspectate  vSnis,  From  what  shores.  Sector,  do  you 
anxiously  awaited  come  t  Virg. 

SECTION  IV. 

ACCUSATIVE. 

370.  The  Accusative  is  used 

T.  As  the  Direct  Object  of  an  Action. 

II.  As  the  Subject  of  an  Infinitive. 
in.  In  Agreement  with  another  Accusative. 
IV.  In  an  Ad  verbial  Sense — with  or  without  Prepositions. 

V.  In  Exclamations — with  or  without  Interjections. 


164  ACCUSATIVE  OF  DIRECT  OBJECT. 

L  Accusative  as  Direct  Object. 

RULE  v.— Direct  Object. 

371.  The  Direct  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the 
Accusative : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  Ood  made  the  world.  Cic.  LibSra  rem 
publicam,  Free  the  republic.  Cic.  Popiili  Romani  salutem  defendite,  De- 
fend the  safety  of  the  Roman  people.  Cic. 

1.  The  Direct  Object  may  be 

1 )  The  Object,  person  or  thing,  on  which  the  action  of  the  verb  is  di- 
rectly exerted,  as  salutem  above. 

2)  The  Effect  of  the  action,  i.  e.,  the  object  produced  by  it,  as  mun- 
dum above. 

3)  The  Cognate  Accusative.  Many  verbs,  generally  intransitive,  some- 
times become  so  far  transitive  as  to  admit  an  accusative  of  cognate  or 
kindred  meaning : 

Earn  vitam  vivSre,  to  live  that  life.  Cic.  Mirum  somniare  somnium,  to 
dream  a  wonderful  dream.  Plaut.  Servitutem  servire,  to  serve  a  servitude. 
Ter. 

(1)  This  accusative  is  usually  qualified  by  an  adjective  as  in  the  flrst  two  exam- 
ples. 

(2)  Neuter  Pronouns  and  Adjectives  often  supply  the  place  of  the  Cognate  ac- 
cusative : 

Eadem  peccat,  ffe  makes  the  same  mistakes.  Cic.  Hoc  studet  iinum,  ffe  studies 
this  one  thing  (this  one  study).  Hor.  Id  assentior,  /  make  this  assent.  Cic.  Idem 
gloriari,  to  make  the  same  boast.  Cic. 

(8)  The  object  is  often  omitted  when  it  is  a  reflexive  (184,  5)  or  can  be  easily 
supplied :  mdveo  ==  moveo  me,  I  move  (myself) ;  vertit  =  vertit  se,  he  moves  (him- 
self). 

(4)  Some  verbs  are  sometimes  transitive  and  sometimes  intransitive:  augeo, 
dUro,  inclpio,  laxo,  ruo,  suppedUo,  turbo,  etc. 

2.  With  or  Without  other  Cases. — The  direct  object  may 
be  used  with  all  transitive  verbs,  whether  with  or  without  other 
cases.     See  384.  410.  419. 

3.  Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs. — Many  verbs  transi- 
tive in  English  are  intransitive  in  Latin.  See  385.  Conversely 
some  verbs  intransitive  in  English  are  transitive  in  Latin,  or  at 
least  are  often  so  used,  especially  verbs  denoting 

1)  Feeling  or  Mental  State :  despero,  to  despair  of;  ddleo,  to  grieve  for ; 
gemo,  to  sigh  over ;  horreo,  to  shudder  at ;  lacrimo,  to  weep  over ;  moereo, 
to  mourn  over;  mlror,  to  wonder  at ;  rldeo,  to  laugh  at ;  sitio,  to  thirst  for, 
etc. 

Honores  despSrat,  He  despairs  of  honors.  Cic.  Haec  gemebant,  They 
were  sighing  over  these  things.  Cic.  Detrimenta  videt,  He  laughs  at  losses.  Hor. 

2)  Taste  or  Smell:  dleo,  s&pio,  and  their  compounds,  both  literally  and 
figuratively : 


DIRECT   OBJECT.      TWO   ACCUSATIVES.  165 

Olet  unguenta,  Ht  imelU  of  perfumer.  Ter.  OrStio  r6d51et  antiquitStem, 
Th«  oration  smacks  of  antiquity.  Cic. 

4.  Compounds  of  Prepositions. — We  notice  two  classes  : 

1)  Many  compounds  become  transitive  by  the  force  of  the  prepositions 
with  which  they  are  compounded,  especially  compounds  of  circum,  per,  prae- 
ter,  trans,  super,  and  subter : 

Murmur  conciOnem  pervSsit,  A  murmur  went  through  the  assembly.  Liv. 
Rhenum  transifirunt,  They  crossed  (went  across)  the  Rhine.  Caes. 

2)  Many  compounds,  without  becoming  strictly  transitive,  admit  an 
Accus.  dependent  upon  the  preposition  : 

Circumstant  sSnStum,  They  stand  around  the  senate.  Cic. 

5.  Clause  as  Object. — An  Infinitive  or  a  Clause  may  be  used 
as  Direct  Object: 

ImpfirSre  ciipiunt,  They  desire  to  rule.  Just,  Senlimus  cSlfire  ignem, 
We  perceive  that  fire  is  hot.  Cic. 

6.  Passive  Consteuction. — When  a  verb  takes  the  passive 
construction 

1)  The  direct  object  of  the  active  becomes  the  subject  of  the  passive,  and 

2)  The  subject  of  the  active  becomes  the  Ablative  of  Cause  (414)  or  the 
Ablative  of  Agent  with  a  ov  ah  (414.  5). 

ThebSni  Ljrsandrum  occiderunt,  The  Thebans  slew  Lysander.  Passive : 
Lj^sauder  occisus  est  aThebanis,  Lysander  was  slain  by  the  Thebans.  Nep. 

7.  Accusative  in  Special  Instances. — Participles  in  dus,  ver- 
bal adjectives  in  bundus,  and  in  Plautus  a  few  verbal  nouns,  occur 
witli  the  accusative : 

Vitabundus  castra,  avoiding  the  camp.  Liv.  Quid  tibi  banc  carStio  est 
rem,  What  care  have  you  of  this  ?  Plaut. 

372.  Two  AcciJSATiYES. — ^Two  accusatives  without  any 
connective,  expressed  or  understood,  may  depend  upon  the 
same  verb.    They  may  denote 

1.  The  same  person  or  thing. 

2,  DifTerent  persons  or  things. 

Any  number  of  accusatives  connected  by  conjunctions,  expressed  or  anderstood, 
may  of  course  depend  upon  the  same  verb. 

RULE  VI.— Two  Accusatives— Same  Person. 

373.  Yerbs  of  making,  choosing,  calling,  regard- 
ing, SHOWING,  and  the  like,  admit  two  Accusatives  of 
the  same  person  or  thing  : 

HSmikarem  imperatorem  ftcgrunt,  They  made  Hamilcar  commander. 
Nep.  Ancum  rggem  populus  creavit,  The  people  elected  Ancus  kina. 
Liv.  Summum  consilium  appellarunt  Senatum,  Tfiey  called  their  highest 
emvncil  Senate.  Cic.     So  praestitit  pr6pugnat5rem  libertatis,  He  showed 


166  TWO   ACCUSATTVES. 

himself  the  champion  of  liberty.  Cic.    Flaccum  habuit  collggam,  He  had 
Flaccus  as  colleague.  Nep. 

1.  Predicate  Accusatite. — One  of  the  two  accusatives  is  the  Direct  Ob- 
ject, and  the  other  an  essential  part  of  the  Predicate.  The  latter  may  6e 
called  a  Predicate  Accusative.  See  362.  2.  (2). 

2.  Verbs  with  Predicate  Accusative. — The  verbs  which  most  frequent- 
ly admit  a  Direct  Object  with  a  Predicate  Accusative  are  verbs  of 

1)  3Iaking,  electing :  facio,  efficio,  reddo,— creo,  elTgo,  designo,  declaro. 

2)  Calling,  regarding :  appello,  nomino,  vo'w,  dico, — ^arbitror,  existimo,  duco^ 
judico,  habeo,  puto. 

3)  Showing  :  praesto,  praebeo,  exhibeo. 

3.  Adjective  as  Predicate  Accusative.— The  Predicate  Accusative  may 
be  either  Substantive  or  Adjective  : 

Homines  caecos  reddit  avaritia,  Avarice  renders  men  "blind.  Cic. 

4.  Passive  Construction. — In  the  Passive  these  verbs  take  two  Nomina- 
tives, a  Subject  and  Predicate,  corresponding  to  the  two  Accusatives  of  the 
Active : 

Servius  rex  est  declaratus,  Servius  was  declared  king.  Liv.    See  862.  2.  2.) 

EXILE  VII.— Two  Accusatives— Person  and  Thing. 

374.  Some  verbs  of  asking,  demanding,  teaching, 
and  CONCEALING,  admit  two  Accusatives  in  the  Active, 
and  one  in  the  Passive : 

Me  sententiam  rogavit,  He  asked  me  my  opinion.  Cic.  Ego  senten- 
tiam  rogatus  sura,  I  was  asked  my  opinion.  Cic.  Philosophia  nos  res  om- 
nes  docuit,  Philosophy  has  taught  us  all  things.  Cic.  Aries  edoctus  fue- 
rat,  He  had  been  taught  the  arts.  Liv.  Non  te  celavi  sermonem,  /  did  not 
conceal  from  you  the  conversation.  Cic. 

1.  Person  and  Thing. — One  accusative  generally  designates 
the  person,  the  other  the  thing :  with  the  Passive  the  accusative 
of  the  Person  becomes  the  subject  and  the  accusative  of  the  thing 
is  retained :  see  examples. 

2.  Verbs  with  two  Accusatives. — Those  most  frequently  so 
used  are 

1)  Regularly:  celo — doceo,  edoceo,  dedoceo. 

2)  Sometimes :  oro,  exoro,  rogo,  iuterrogo,  percenter,  flagito, 
posco,  reposco. 

3.  Other  Constructions  also  occur : 

1)  Celo:  Ablative  with  a  preposition : 

Me  de  hoc  libro  celavit,  He  kept  me  ignorant  of  this  hook.  Cic.  Passive :  Accus. 
©f  Neuter  pronoun  or  Abl.  with  de :  Hoc  celari,  to  he  kept  ignorant  of  this.  Ter. 
Celarl  de  consilio,  to  he  kept  ignorant  of  the  plan.  Cic.  The  Dative  is  rare:  Id 
Alcibiadi  celari  non  potuit,  This  could  not  he  concealed  from  Alcihiades.  Nep. 

2)  Verbs  of  Teaching :  Ablative  with  or  without  a  preposition  : 

De  sua  re  me  docet ;  He  informs  me  iti  regard  to  his  case,  Cic.  SScrStem  fidi' 
bus  dScuit,  He  taught  Socrates  (with)  the  lyre.  Cic. 


TWO  ACCUSATIVES.  167 

S)   Verbs  of  Asking^  Demanding :  Ablative  with  a  preposition : 

Hoc  a  me  posc^re,  to  demand  thU  from  me,  Cic.  Te  Usdem  de  rfibua  interrfigo, 
i  ask  you  in  regard  to  the  same  things.  Cic. 

4)  PitOy  postuloy  and  quaero  take  the  Ablative  of  the  person  with  a 
preposition : 

Pac«m  a  Bdmanis  pStiSrnnt,  They  asked  peace  from  the  Romane.  Caes. 

4.  Infinitive  or  Clause  as  Accusative  of  thing ; 
Te  8&p6re  dScet,  Be  teaches  you  to  be  wise.  Cic. 

5.  A  Neuter  Pronoun  or  Adjective  as  a  second  accusatir© 
occurs  with  many  verbs  which  do  not  otherwise  take  two  accusa- 
tives: 

Hoc  te  hortor,  /  exhort  you  to  this,  I  give  you  this  exhortation.  Cic.  Ea 
m5D6mur,  We  are  admoninhed  of  these  things.  Cic. 

6.  Compound  Verbs. — A  few  compounds  of  trans^  circum^  ad, 
and  in  admit  two  accusatives,  dependent  the  one  upon  the  verb^ 
the  other  upon  the  preposition : 

Ibfirum  copias  trajgcit,  Be  led  his  forces  across  the  Ebro.  Liv. 

In  the  Passive,  not  only  these,  but  even  other  compounds  sometimes  admit  aa 
Accus.  depending  upon  the  preposition : 

Praetervehor  ostia  Pantigiae,  /  am  carried  hy  the  mouth  of  the  Pantagia, 
VIrg. 

7.  Poetic  Accusative. — In  poetry,  rarely  in  prose,  verbs  of 
clothing,  unclothing — induo,  exuo,  cingo,  accingo,  induce,  etc. — 
sometimes  take  in  the  Passive  an  accusative  in  imitation  of  the 
Greek: 

GSleam  induitur,  Be  puts  on  his  helmet.  Virg.  Intttfle  ferrum  cingitur, 
Be  girds  on  his  useless  sword.  Virg.  Virgines  longam  indtltae  vestem, 
maidens  attired  in  long  robes.  Liv. 

n.   Accus ATTVE   AS   SuBJECT   OF   iNFINinVE. 

375.  The  Accusative  is  used  as  the  Subject  of  an  Infin- 
itive ;  see  545 : 

P15t6nem  f^rmjt  in  ItSliam  vfinisse,  They  say  that  Plato  came  into 
Italy.  Cic. 

Platdnem  is  the  subject  ofvenisse. 

m.  Accusative  in  agreement  with  an  Accusative. 

376.  The  Accusative  in  agreement  with  another  Accu- 
sative is  either  a  Predicate  Noun  or  an  Appositive : 

Orestem  se  esse  dixit,  ffe  said  that  he  vj<7.-?  Orestes.  Cic.  Apud  H6r6- 
dotum,  patrem  historiae,  in  Berodotus,  the  father  of  history.  Cic.  Se© 
362  and  363. 


168  ADVERBIAL   ACCUSATIVE. 

IV.  Accusative  in  an  Adverbial  Sense; 

377.  In  an  Adverbial  sense  the  Accusative  is  used 
either  with  or  without  Prepositions. 

1.  With  Prepositions.    See  433. 

2.  Without  Prepositions. — The  Adverbial  use  of  the  Accusative  without 
Prepositions  is  presented  in  the  following  rules. 

ETJLE  VIII.— Accusative  of  Time  and  Space. 

378.  Duration  of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space  are 
expressed  by  the  Accusative  : 

Romulus  septem  et  triginta  regnavit  annos,  Romulus  reigned  thirty- 
seven  years.  Liv.  Quinque  millia  passuum  ambulare,  to  walk  Jive  miles. 
Cic.  Pedes  octoginta  distare,  to  he  eighty  feet  distant.  Caes.  Nix  quat- 
tuor  pgdes  alta,  snow  four  feet  deep.  Liv.     But 

1.  Duration  of  Time  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Ablative 
or  the  Accusative  with  a  Preposition  : 

1)  By  the  Ablative :  Pugnatum  est  horis  quinque,  77ie  battle  was 
fought  five  hours.  Caes. 

2)  By  the  Accusative  with  Preposition :  Per  annos  viginti  certatum 
est,  77ie  war  was  waged  for  twenty  years.  Liv. 

2.  Distance  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Ablative : 

Millibus  passuum  sex  consedit,  He  encamped  at  the  distance  of  six  miles. 
Caes.  Sometimes  with  a  preposition ;  Ab  millibus  passuum  duobus,  at  the 
distance  of  two  miles.  Caes. 

RULE  IX.— Accusative  of  Limit. 

379.  The  Kame  of  a  Town  used  as  the  Limit  of 
motion  is  put  in  the  Accusative  : 

Nuntius  Romam  rfedit,  Tlie  messenger  returns  to  Rome.  Liv.  Plato 
Tarentum  vgnit,  Plato  came  to  Tarentum.  Cic.  Fugit  Tarquinios,  He  fled 
to  Tarquinii.  Cic.     But 

1.  The  Accusative  with  Ad  occurs : 

1)  In  the  sense  of— ^o,  toward,  in  the  direction  of,  into  the  vicinity  of : 
Tres  sunt  viae  ad  Miitinam,  There  are  three  roads  to  Mutina.  Cic.    Ad 

ZSmam  perv6nit,  He  came  to  the  vicinity  of  Zama.  Sail. 

2)  In  contrast  with  a  or  ab  : 

A  DiSnio  ad  SIn5pen,/ww»  Dianium  to  Sinope.  Cic. 

2.  Urls  or  Oppidum  with  a  Preposition : 

Perv6nit  in  oppidum  Cirtam,  He  came  into  the  town  of  Cirta.  Sail. 
8.  Like  Names  of  Towns  are  used 


ADVERBIAL   ACCUSATIVE.  109 

1)  The  Accusatives  dSmum,  d5mos,  rus: 

Sclpio  d6muin  rfiductus  est,  Scipio  was  conducted  home.  Cic.  D6mos 
abducti,  led  to  their  liomes.  Liv.  Rus  6v6l2re,  to  hasten  into  the  country. 
Cic. 

2)  Sometimes  the  Accusative  of  names  of  Islands  and  Peninsulas  : 
Latona  confQgit  Delum,  Latona  fled  to  Delos.  Cic.    Pervgnit  ChersfinQ- 

sum,  He  went  to  the  Chersonesus.  Nep. 

4.  Names  of  Other  Places  used  as  the  limit  of  motion  are  generally  in  tLo 
Accusative  with  a  Preposition  : 

In  Asiam  r»5dit,  He  returns  into  Asia.  Nep. 

But  the  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted  before  names  of  coontries,  and,  in  tha 
poets,  before  names  of  nations  and  even  before  common  nouns: 

Aegyptum  profugit,  He  fled  to  Egypt.  Cic  Italiam  v^nit,  ZT*  came  to  Italy. 
Virg.  Ibrmus  Afros,  We  shall  go  to  the  Africans.  Virg.  Lavlnia  v6nit  lltdra,  ^i 
came  to  the  Lavinian  shores.    Virg. 

5.  A  Poetic  Dative  for  the  accusative  with  or  without  a  preposition 
occurs : 

It  clamor  coelo  (for  ad  coelum).  The  shout  ascends  to  heaven.  Virg. 

RULE  X.— Accusative  of  Specification. 

380.  A  Verb  or  Adjective  may  take  an  Accusative 
to  define  its  application : 

capita  velamur,  We  have  our  heads  veiled  (are  veiled  as  to  our  heads). 
Virg.  NQbe  humeros  Smictus,  with  hi^  shoulders  enveloped  in  a  cloud, 
Ilor.  Miles  fractus  membra  l^bOre,  the  soldier  with  limbs  shattered  with 
labor  (broken  as  to  his  limbs).  Ilor.  Aengas  os  dec  slmllis,  Aeneas  like 
a  god  in  appearance.     Virg. 

1.  In  a  strict  sense,  the  Accusative  of  Specification  generally  specifies 
the  part  to  which  the  action  or  quality  particularly  belongs.  In  this  sense, 
it  is  mostly  poetic,  but  occurs  also  in  prose.     See  429. 

2.  In  a  freer  sense,  this  Accusative  includes  the  adverbial  use  oi partem, 
vicem,  nihil,  of  id  and  genus  in  id  tempbris,  id  aetdtis  (at  this  time,  age),  id 
genus,  omne  genus,  quod  genus  {for  ejus  generis,  etc.),  etc. ;  also  of  secus,  libra 
and  of  many  neuter  pronouns  and  adjectives  ;  hoc,  illud,  id,  quid  (454,  2), 
multum,  summum,  cetera,  reliqua,  etc.    In  this  sense,  it  is  common  in  prose. 

Maximam  partem  lacte  vivunt,  The?/  live  mostly  (as  to  the  largest  part) 
upon  milk.  Caes.    Nihil  m5ti  sunt.  They  were  not  at  all  moved.  Liv.   Locus 
id  tompcJris  vacuus  6rat,  The  place  was  at  this  tim£  vacant.  Cic.    Aliquid  id  ' 
gSnus  scribere,  to  write  something  of  this  kind.  Cic.     Quaerit,  quid  possint, 
He  inquires  Tiow  powerful  they  are.  Caes.     Quid  v6nis.   Why  do  you  come  f 

Y.  Accusative  ts  Exclamations. 
RTTLE  XI— Accusative  in  Exclamations. 

381.  The  Accusative  ojther  with  or  without  an  In- 
terjection may  be  used  in  Exclamations  : 


170  ACCUSATIVE.      DATIVE. 

Heu  me  misSrum,  Ah  me  unhappy  1  Cic.  Me  misSrum,  Me  miserable  I ' 
Cic.  0  fallacem  spem,  0  deceptive  hope  !  Cic.  Me  caecum,  Blind  that  1 
am  1  Cic.     Pro  deorum  f  idem,  In  the  name  of  the  gods  !  Cic.     But 

1.  An  Adjective  or  Genitive  generally  accompanies  this  accusative,  as  in  the  ex- 
amples. 

2.  0,  iheu,  heu  are  the  Inteijections  most  frequently  used  with  the  Accusative, 
tiough  others  occur. 

8.  Other  Cases  also  occur  in  exclamations : 

1)  The  Vocative — when  an  address  as  well  as  an  exclamation  is  intended : 

Pro  sancte  Jupiter,  O  holy  Jupiter.  Cic.    Infelix  Dido,  Unhappy  Dido.  Virg. 
'        2)  The  iV^omma^ire— when  the  exclamation  approaches  the  form  of  a  statement: 

En  dextra,  Lo  the  right  hand  (there  is,  or  that  is  the  right  hand)  I  Virg.  Ecce 
tuae  litterae,  Lo  yov^r  letter  (comes) !  Cic. 

8)  The  Dative— io  designate  the  person  after  Aei,  tJae,  and  sometimes  after  ecce, 
an,  hem . 

Hei  mihi.  Woe  to  me.  Virg.  Vae  tibi,  Woe  to  you.  Ter.  Ecce  tibi,  Lo  to  you 
(lo  here  is  to  you  =  observe).  Cic.    En  tibi,  This  for  you  (lo  I  do  this  for  you).  Liv. 


SECTION  y. 

DATIVE. 

382.  The  Dative  is  the  Case  of  the  Indirect  Object, 
and  is  used 

I.  With  Verbs. 
II.  With  Adjectives. 
ni.  With  their  Derivatives — ^Adverbs  and  Substantives. 

I.  Dative  with  Verbs. 

383.  Indirect  Object. — A  verb  is  often  attended  by 
a  noun  designating  the  object  indirectly  affected  by  the 
action,  that  to  or  for  which  something  is  or  is  done.  A 
noun  thus  used  is  called  an  Indirect  Object. 

RULE  XII.— Dative  with  Verbs. 

384.  The  Indirect  Object  is  put  in  the  Dative : 

I.  With  Inteansitive  and  Passive  Verbs : 

Tempori  cedit,  He  yields  to  the  time.  Cic.  Sibi  timuSrant,  They  had 
feared  for  themselves.  Caes.  Labori  student,  They  devote  themselves  to 
labor.  Caes.  Mundus  deo  paret,  The  world  obeys  God.^  Cic.  Caesari 
iupplicabo,  I  will  supplicate  Caesar.^  Cic.     Nobis  vita  data  est.  Life  hat 

1  Milton,  Par.  Lost,  iv.  73 

'  Is  subject  to  God. 

9  Will  make  supplication  to  Caesar. 


DATIVE  WITH   VERBS.  l7l 

been  granted  to  us.  Cic.  Numitori  deditur,  He  is  delivered  to  Numitor. 
Liv. 

II.  With  Teansitive  Verbs,  in  connection  with  the  Accusa- 
tive : 

Pons  iter  hostlbus  d^dit,  TJie  bridge  gave  a  passage  to  the  enemy.  Liv. 
Lfiges  civitatibus  suis  scripsfirunt,  2Viey  prepared  laws  for  their  states.  Cic. 

1.  Double  Construction. — A  few  verbs  admit  (1)  the  Dative  of  the  per- 
Bon  and  the  Accusative  of  the  thing,  or  (2)  the  Accusative  of  the  person  and 
the  Ablative  of  the  thing :  alicui  rem  ddndre,  to  present  a  thing  to  any  one,  or 
aliquem  re  ddndre^  to  present  any  one  with  a  thing.  For  the  Dat.  of  the  per- 
son, the  Dat.  of  a  thing  sometimes  occurs,  especially  if  it  involves  persons  or 
is  in  a  measure  personified  : 

Murum  urbi  circumdfidit,  He  surrounded  the  city  with  a  wall.  Nep. 

This  double  construction  occurs  chiefly  with  :  aspergo,  circumdo,  circumfuU' 
do,  dono,  exno,  impertio,  indue,  inspergo,  intercludo. 

2.  To  and  For  are  not  always  signs  of  the  Dative  :  thus 

1)  To,  denoting  mere  motion  or  direction,  is  generally  expressed  by  the 
Accusative  with  or  without  a  preposition  (379.  and  379.  4) : 

Veni  ad  uibem,  /  came  to  the  city.  Cic.  Dfilum  vfinlmus,  We  came  to 
Delos.  Cic.  But  the  Dative  occurs  in  the  poets :  It  clSmor  coelo,  The  shout 
goes  to  heaven.  Virg. 

2)  For,  in  defence  of,  in  behalf  of ,  is  expressed  by  the  Abl.  with  j^ro  / 
f&r  the  sake  of ,  for  the  purpose  of,  sometimes  by  the  Accus.  with  in. 

Pro  patria  m6ri,  to  die  for  on^s  country.  Hor.  Dimicare  pro  libertSte, 
to  fight  for  liberty.  Cic.     SStis  in  usum,  moughfor  use.  Liv. 

3.  Other  English  Equivalents. — Conversely  the  dative  is  often  used 
where  the  English  either  omits  to  or  for,  or  employs  some  other  preposi- 
tion. We  proceed  to  specify  the  cases  in  which  this  diflference  of  idiom 
requires  notice, 

385.  The  Dative  of  Advantage  and  Disadvantage  is 
used  with  verbs  signifying  to  henejit  or  injure,  please  or 
displease,  command  of  obey,  serve  or  resist ;  also,  indulge^ 
spare,  pardon,  envy,  threaten,  be  angry,  believe,  persuade, 
and  the  like  : 

SIbi  prOsunt,  They  benefit  themselves.  Cic.  N6c6re  altfiri,  to  injure  an- 
other. Cic.  Zenoni  pl^cuit,  It  pleased  Zeno.  Cic.  Displieet  TuUo,  It  dis- 
pleases Tullus.  Liv,  Cupiditatibus  impferSre,  to  command  desires.  Cic. 
Deo  pargre,  to  obey  God.  Cic.  R6gi  servire,  to  serve  the  king.  Cic.  Hos- 
tlbus r^sistfire,  to  resist  the  enemy.  Caes,  Sibi  indulgCre,  to  indulge  one's 
self.  Cic,  Vitae  parcere,  to  spare  life.  Nep.  Mihi  ignoscere,  to  pardon 
me.  Cic.  Mimtans  patriae,  threatening  his  country.  Liv.  Irasci  SmTcis, 
to  be  angry  unth  friends.  Cic.  Mihi  crfide,  Believe  me.  Cic.  lis  persua- 
dei-e,  to  persuade  them.  Caes. 


172  DATIVE    WITH   VERBS. 

1.  Other  Cases. — Some  verbs  of  this  class  take  the  Accusative  :  delecto, 
juvo,  laedo,  offendo,  etc. ;  fido  and  confido  generally  the  Ablative  (419) : 

Marium  jtivit,  He  helped  Marius.  Nep. 

2.  Special  Verbs. — With  a  few  verbs  the  force  of  the  dative  is  found 
only  by  attending  to  the  strict  meaning  of  the  verb:  nubo,  to  marry,  strictly 
to  veil  one' s  self,  as  the  bride  for  the  bridegroom ;  medeor,  to  cure,  to  adminis- 
ter a  remedy  to ;  satisfaciOy  to  satisfy,  to  do  enough  for,  etc. 

8.  Accusative  or  Dative  with  a  difference  of  signification :  cavere  ali- 
quem,  to  ward  off  some  one ;  cavere  alicui,  to  care  for  some  one ;  consuUre 
aliquem,  to  consult,  etc. ;  diicui,  to  consult  for ;  metuere,  Umere  aliquem,  to 
fear,  etc. ;  diicui,  to  fear  for ;  prospicere,  providere  dUquid,  to  foresee ;  diicui^ 
to  provide  for;  temph'dre,  moderdri  dliquid,  to  govern,  direct;  diicui,  to  re- 
strain, put  a  check  upon  ;  temperdre  (sibi)  ab  dliquo,  to  abstain  from. 

A  few  verbs  admit  either  the  Ace.  or  Dat.  without  any  special  difference 
of  meaning :  ddulor,  to  flatter ;  cbmxtor,  to  accompany,  etc. 

4.  Dative  rendered  From,  occurs  with  a  few  verbs  of  differing,  dissent- 
ing, repelling,  taking  away  :  differo,  discrSpo,  disto,  dissentio,  arceo,  etc. . 

Differre  cuivis,  to  differ  from  any  one.  Nep.  DiscrSpare  istis,  to  differ 
from  those.  Hor.     Sibi  dissentire,  to  dissent  from  himself.   Cic.     See  412. 

5.  Dative  rendered  With,  occurs  with  misceo,  admisceo,  permisceo,  jun- 
ffo,  certo,  (iecerio,  lucto,  altercor,  and  sometimes/aa'o  (434.  2) : 

S5veritatem  miscSre  comitati,  to  unite  severity  with  affability.  Liv. 
Misceo  and  its  compounds,  as  also  junctus  and  con^unctus,  also  take  the  AbL 
with  or  without  cum. 

386.  Dative  with  Compounds. — The  dative  is  used  with 
many  verbs  compounded  with  the  prepositions : 

ad,  ante,  con,  in,  inter, 

ob,  post,  prae,  sub,         super: 

Adsum  Smicis,  /  am  present  with  my  friends.  Cic.  Omnibus  ante- 
stare,  to  surpass  all,  Cic.  Terris  cohaeret,  It  cleaves  to  the  earth.  Sen. 
Voluptati  inhaerere,  to  be  connected  with  pleasure.  Cic.  Interfuit  pugnae, 
He  participated  in  the  battle.  Nep.  Consiliis  obstare,  to  oppose  plans. 
Nep.  Libertati  opes  postferre,  to  sacrifice  wealth  to  liberty.  Liv.  Popiilo 
praesunt,  They  rule  the  people.  Cic.  Succumbgre  doloribus,  to  yield  to 
sorrows.  Cic.     Superfuit  patri,  He  survived  his  father.  Liv. 

1.  TRANsrrivE  Verbs  thus  compounded  admit  both  the  Accusative  and  Dative : 
Se  opposuit  hostibus,  Re  opposed  himself  to  the  enemy.  Cic. 

2.  Compounds  of  othek  Pkepositions,  especially  ab,  de,  ex,  pro,  and  drcum, 
ftometimes  admit  the  Dative ;  while  several  of  the  compounds  specified  under  the 
rule  admit  the  Abl. :  aesuesco,  consuesco,  insuesco,  acquiesce,  supersedeo  (also  with 
Ace),  etc. 

Hoc  Caesar!  deftiit,  This  failed  (was  wanting  to)  Caesar.  Caes. 

3.  Motion  or  Direction.— Compounds  expressing  mere  motion  «<r  direction 
generally  take  the  Accusative  or  repeat  the  preposition : 


DATIVE  ^VITII  vi:rbs.  173 

Adire  aras,  to  approach  the  altars.  Cic  Ad  consiiles  idire,  to  go  to  the  con- 
$uls.  Cia 

In  some  instances  where  no  motion  is  expressed,  several  of  these  componnds 
tdmit  some  other  construction  for  the  Dative : 

la  OrutOre  inest  scieutia,  In  the  orator  is  knowledge.  Cic 

387.  The  Dative  of  Possessor  is  used  with  the  verb  Sum  : 

Mihi  est  noverca,  I  have  (there  is  to  me)  a  stepmother.  Virg.  Fonti 
nSmen  Arethusa  est,  The  fountain  has  (there  is  to  the  fountain)  tlie  name 
Arethusa.  Cic.     But 

1.  The  Datiye  ot  the  Name  as  well  as  of  the  possessor  is  common  in  ezpres> 
sions  of  naming :  ndmen  eat,  nomen  ddtur,  etc. : 

ScIpiOni  Africuno  cognomen  fuit,  Scipio  had  the  surname  Africanus.  Sail. 
Here  Africuno,  instead  of  being  in  apposition  with  cognomen,  is  put  by  attraction  In 
apposition  with  Scipioni. 

2.  The  Genitive  of  the  Name  dependent  upon  nomen  occurs: 
Nomen  Mercurii  est  mihi,  I  have  the  name  of  Mercury.  Plaut. 

8.  By  a  Greek  Idiom,  vdlens,  cUpiens,  or  invltus  sometimes  accompanies  the 
dative  of  possessor : 

Quibus  bellnm  vdlentibus  erat,  They  liked  the  war  (it  was  to  them  wishing). 
Tac 

388.  Dative  of  Agent. — The  Dative  of  Agent  is  used 
with  the  Participle  in  dus: 

Suum  culque  incommodum  f^rendum  est,  Every  one  has  his  own  trouble 
to  bear,  or  must  bear  his  own  trouble.  Cic. 

1.  Dative  with  Compocnd  Tenses.— The  Dative  of  the  Agent  is  some- 
times used  with  the  compound  tenses  of  passive  verbs : 

Mihi  consilium  captum  jam  diu  est,  I  have  apian  long  since  formed.  Cic. 

1)  The  Dative  of  Agent,  with  the  Participle  in  dus,  as  in  the  Periphrastic  Con- 
jugation, designates  the  person  who  has  the  worlc  to  do ;  while  with  the  Compound 
Tenses  of  passive  verbs.  It  designates  the  person  who  has  the  work  already  done.  See 
examples  above. 

2)  Habeo  with  the  Perfect  Participle  has  the  same  force  as  est  mihi  with  the 
Perfect  Participle  (388,  1): 

Bellnm  habuit  indictum,  lie  had  a  war  (already)  declared.  Cic 

8)  The  Ablative  with  a  or  ah  occurs: 

Est  a  vobis  consulendum,  Measures  must  'be  taken  by  you.  Cic. 

2.  The  Real  Agent  with  Passive  verbs  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with 
o  or  ah.  The  Dative,  though  the  regular  construction  with  the  Passive  Peri- 
phrastic conjugation,  does  not  regard  the  person  strictly  as  agent,  but 
rather  as  possessor  or  indirect  object.  Thus,  Suum  cuique  incommodum 
est,  means.  Every  one  has  his  trouble  {cuique  Dative  of  Possessor),  and 
Suum  cuique  incommMum  ferendum  est.  Every  one  has  his  trouble  to  bear. 
So  too,  Mihi  consilium  est,  I  have  a  plan ;  Mihi  consilium  captum  est,  I  have 
a  plan  {already)  formed. 

8,  Dative  with  Simple  Tenses. — The  Dative  is  used  with  the  tenses  for 
incomplete  action,  to  designate  the  person  who  is  at  once  Agent  and  Indi- 
rect Object,  the  person  by  whom  and  foe  (to)  whom  the  action  is  performed* 


IH  TWO   DATIVES. 

HSnesta  b^nis  vJris  quaeruntur,  HonorahU  things  are  ioughi  hy  good  men, 
L  e.,  for  themselves.  Cic. 

4.  Dative  of  Agent  in  Poets. — In  the  poets  the  Dative  is  often  used 
for  the  Ablative  with  a  or  ah,  to  designate  simply  the  agent  of  the  action  : 

Xon  intelligor  uUi,  I  am  not  understood  hy  any  one.  Ovid. 

389.  Ethical  Dative. — ^A  Dative  of  the  person  to  whom 
the  thought  is  of  special  interest  is  often  introduced  into 
the  Latin  sentence  when  it  cannot  be  imitated  in  English : 

At  tihi  venit  ad  me,  But  lo^  he  comes  to  me.  Cic.  Ad  ilia  mihi  in- 
tendat  animum,  Let  him,  I  pray,  direct  his  attention  to  those  things.  LIt. 
Quid  mihi  Celsus  agit  ?  What  is  my  Celsus  doing  ?  Her.     But 

1.  The  Ethical  Dative  is  always  a  personal  pronoun. 

2.  Ethical  Dative  with  volo  and  interjections  : 

1)  With  Volo:  Quid  vobis  vultis?  What  do  you  wish,  intend,  meant  Llv. 
Avaritia  quid  sibi  vult,  W7i,at  does  avarice  mean,  or  what  object  can  it  havel  Cic. 

2)  With  Interjections:  hei,  vae  and  some  others:  Hei  mihi,  ah  me.  Virg. 
Vae  tibi,  Woe  to  you.  Ter.    See  381.  3.  3). 

RULE  XIII.— Two  Datives— To  which  and  For  whicL 

390.  Two  Datives — the  object  to  which  and  the 
OBJECT  FOE  which — occur  with  a  few  verbs : 

I.  With  Intransitive  and  Passive  Verbs : 

Male  est  hominibus  avaritia,  Avarice  is  an  evil  to  men  (lit.  is  to  men 
for  an  evil).  Cic.  Est  mihi  curae.  It  is  a  care  to  me.  Cic.  Domus  dede- 
cori  domino  fit,  Tlie  house  becomes  a  disgrace  to  its  ovmer.  Cic.  Yenit 
Atticis  auxilio.  He  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians.  Nep.  Hoc  illi 
tribuebatur  ignaviae.  This  was  imputed  to  him  as  cowardice  {for  cowardice). 
Cic.     lis  subsidio  missus  est.  He  was  sent  to  them  as  aid.  Nep. 

II.  With  Transitive  Verbs  in  connection  with  the  Accusa- 
tive : 

Quinque  cohortes  castris  praesidio  rgliquit.  He  left  five  cohorts  for  the 
defence  of  the  camp  (lit.  to  the  camp  f&r  a  defence).  Caes.  Pericles  agros 
suos  dono  rei  publicae  dedit,  Pericles  gave  his  lands  to  the  republic  as  a 
present  (lit.  for  a  present).  Just. 

1.  Verbs  with  Two  Datives  are 

1)  Intransitives  signifying  to  he,  become,  go,  and  the  like;  sum,  flo,  etc. 

2)  Transitives  signifying  to  give,  send,  leave,  impute,  regard,  choose,  and 
the  like:  do,  dono,  duco,  habeo,  mitto,  relinquo,  tribtw,  verto,  etc.  These 
take  in  the  Active  two  datives  with  an  accusative,  but  in  the  Passive  two 
datives  only,  as  the  Accusative  of  the  active  becomes  the  subject  of  the  pas- 
sive.   See  371.  6. 


DATIVE   WITH   ADJECTIVES.  l16 

2.  One  Dative  Omitted.— One  dative  is  often  omitted  or  its  place  supplied  by 
a  Predicate  Noun : 

Ea  sunt  usul,  These  things  are  of  use  (for  use).  Caes.  Tu  illi  piter  es,  You  are 
a  father  to  him.  Tac. 

8.  With  Audiena  two  Datives  sometimes  occur,  the  Dat.  dicta  dependent  upon 
aiidiens  and  a  personal  Dat  dependent  upon  dieto-audiens  treated  as  a  verb  of 
obeying  (385) : 

Dicto  sum  audiens,  /  am  listening  to  the  word,  I  obey.  PlauL  Ndbis  dicto  aud- 
lens  est,  He  is  ohedieni  to  us.  Cic.  Sometimes  dicto  dbediens  is  used  In  the  sama 
way;  Migistro  dicto  obediens,  obedient  to  his  master.  Plant 

II.  Dative  with  Adjectives. 

EULE  XIV.— Dative. 

391.  With  Adjectives  the  object  to  which  the  qual- 
ity is  directed  is  put  in  the  Dative : 

Patriae  solum  omnibus  cSrum  est,  The  soil  of  their  country  is  dear  to 
all.  Cic.  Id  aptum  est  tempori,  This  is  adapted  to  the  time.  Cic.  Omni 
aetfiti  mors  est  communis,  Death  is  common  to  every  age.  Cic.  Can  is  sim- 
ilis  lupo  est,  A  dog  is  similar  to  a  wolf.  Cic.  Naturae  accommodatum, 
adapted  to  nature.  Cic.     Graeciae  utfle,  useful  to  Greece.  Nep. 

1,  Adjectives  with  Datite. — The  most  common  are  those  signifying : 
Agreeable,  easy,  friendly,  like,  near,  necessary,  suitable,  subject,  usefid, 

together  with  others  of  a  similar  or  opposite  meaning,  and  verbals  in  bilis. 

Such  are :  accommSdatus,  aeqnalis,  filienus,  Smicus  and  Inimicus,  aptus,  carup, 
ficilis  and  diflficilis,  fidelis  and  infidC-lis,  finitimus,  gratus  and  ingratus,  Idoneus,  ju- 
ciindus  and  injucundus,  molestus,  necessurius,  notus  and  ignotus,  noxius,  par  and 
dispar,  perniciosus,  prSpinquus,  proprlus,  salutaris,  slmUis  and  dissimDis,  viclnus,  etc 

2,  Other  Constructions  sometimes  occur  where  the  learner  would  ex- 
pect the  Dative : 

1)  Accusative  with  a  Preposition :  (1)  in,  erga,  adversus  with  adjec- 
tives ^\gn\{y'mg friendly,  hostile,  etc.,  and  (2)  ad,  to  denote  the  object  or  end 
for  which,  with  adjectives  signifying  useful,  suitable,  inclined,  etc. : 

Pfirindulgens  in  patrem,  very  hind  to  his  father.  Cic.  Multas  ad  reS 
pSrtltnis,  very  useful  for  many  things.  Cic.  Ad  comltatem  procllvis,  inclin- 
ed to  affability.  Cic.     PrSnus  ad  luctum,  inclined  to  mourning.  Cic. 

2)  Accusative  without  a  Preposition  with  propior,  proxi/mus  : 

PrCpior  montem,  nearer  the  mountain.  Sail.  Proximus  m&re,  nearest  (0 
to  the  sea.  Caes.    See  433  and  437. 

8)  Ablative  with  or  without  a  Preposition  : 

Alienum  a  vita  mea,  foreign  to  my  life.  Ter,  HSmlne  Slienisslmnm, 
most  foreign  to  man.  Cic.  Ei  cum  Roscio  commanis,  common  to  him  and' 
Boscius  (with  Roscius).  Cic. 

4)  Qtnitive :  (1)  yri\h  propriut,  commCjUs,  contrdriut ;  (2)  with  rimiUs, 


176  DATIVE    WITH    NOUNS    AND    ADVERBS. 

disdmiUSy  assimilis,  consimilis,  par  and  dispar,  especially  to  express  likeness 
in  character ;  (3)  with  adjectives  used  substantively,  sometimes  even  in  the 
superlative ;  (4)  sometimes  with  of  mis,  alienus,  insiietus,  and  a  few  others : 
P6piili  Romani  est  propria  libertas,  Liberty  is  characteristic  of  the  Roman 
people.  Cic.  ^AQ-^oxi^vx^xmSx&ylilce  Alexander, '\.  e.,  in  character.  Cic.  Dis- 
par sui,  unlike  itself.  Cic.  Cujus  pares,  like  whom,  Cic.  Amicissimus  h6m- 
Inum,  the  best  friend  of  the  men,  i.  e.,  the  most  friendly  to  them.  Cic. 

3.  Idem  occurs  with  the  Dative,  especially  in  the  poets  : 

Idem  fScit  occidenti,  He  does  the  same  as  kill,  or  as  he  who  kills.  Hor. 

4.  For  the  Genitive  and  Dative  with  an  adjective,  see  399,  6. 

III.  Dative  with  Derivative  Nouns  and  Adverbs. 
RULE  XV.— Dative. 

392.  A  few  Derivative  Nouns  and  Adverbs  take 
the  Dative  after  the  analogy  of  their  primitives  : 

I.  Verbal  Nouns. — Justifcia  est  obteraperatio  legibus,  Justice  is  obe- 
dience to  laws.  Cic.  Sibi  responsio,  replying  to  himself.  Cic.  Opulento 
homini  scrvitus  dura  est,  Serving  a  rich  man  (servitude  to)  is  hard.  Plant. 

II.  Adverbs. — Congruenter  naturae  vlvere,  to  live  in  accordance  with 
nature.  Cic.  Sibi  constanter  dice  re,  to  speah  consistently  with  himself.  Cic. 
Proxime  hostium  castris,  next  to  the  camp  of  the  enemy.  Caes. 

1.  Dative  with  Nottns.— Nouns  construed  with  the  Dative  are  derived  from 
verbs  which  govern  the  Dative.  "With  other  nouns  the  Dative  is  generally  best  ex- 
plained as  dependent  upon  some  verb,  expressed  or  understood : 

Tegimenta  galeis  mill  tea  facere  jubet,  He  orders  the  soldiers  to  make  coverings 
for  their  helmets.  Caes.  Here  galeis  is  probably  the  indirect  object  of /ac^re  and 
not  dependent  upon  tegimenta.  In  conspectum  venerat  hostibus,  ffe  had  come  in 
sight  of  the  enemy.  Caes.  Here  hostibus  is  dependent  not  upon  conspectum,  but 
upon  venerat;  the  action,  coming  in  sight,  is  conceived  of  as  done  to  the  enemy. 
See  398.  5. 

2.  Dative  with  Adverbs. — A  few  adverbs  not  included  in  the  above  rule  occur 
with  the  Dative:  huic  Una  —  una  cum  Iwc,  with  him. 

SECTION  VI. 

GENITIVE. 

393.  The  Genitive  in  its  primary  meaning  denotes 
source  or  cause.,  but  in  its  general  use,  it  corresponds  to  the 
Enghsh  possessive,  or  the  objective  with  q/*,  and  expresses 
various  adjective  relations. 

1.  But  sometimes,  especially  when  Objective  (396,  II.),  the  Genitive  is 
best  rendered  by  to,  for,  from,  in,  on  account  of,  etc. : 

B6n6ficii  gra.iia.,  gratitude  for  a  favor.  Cic.  L&borum  fiiga,  escape 
from  labors.  Cic. 


GENITIVE   WITH   NOUNS.  177 

394.  The  Genitive  is  used 
I.  With  Nouns. 

n.  With  Adjectives. 
m.  With  Verbs. 
IV.  With  Adverbs. 

I.  Genitive  with  Nouns. 
EULE  XVI.— Genitive. 

395.  Any  Noun,  not  an  Appositive,  qualifying  the 
meaning  of  another  noun,  is  put  in  the  Genitive  : 

Citonis  oratiOnes,  Catd's  orations.  Cic.  Castra  hostium,  the  camp  of 
the  enemy.  Liv.  Mors  HSmilcSris,  the  death  of  Hamilcar.  Liv.  Deum 
mfttus,  the  fear  of  th^  gods.  Liv.  Vir  consllii  magni,  a  m/zn  of  great  pru- 
dence. Caes.     See  363. 

396.  Varieties  of  Genitive  with  Nouns.— The  principal 
varieties  of  the  Genitive  are  the  following : 

I.  The  Subjective  Genitive  designates  the  subject  or 
affent  of  the  action,  feeling,  etc.,  including  the  author  and 
possessor : 

Serpentis  morsus,  the  bite  of  the  serpent.  Cic.  Pfivor  Numldarum,  ihe 
fear  of  the  Nnmidians.  Liv.  Xenophontis  libri,  the  hooks  of  Xenophan,  Cic. 
Filnum  Neptuni,  (he  temple  of  Neptune.  Nep. 

II.  The  Objective  Genitive  designates  the  object  tow- 
ard which  the  action  or  feeling  is  directed  : 

Amor  glOriae,  the  love  of  glory.  Cic.  MSmoria  mSlorum,  the  recollec- 
tion of  sufferings.  Cic.     IteMm.  m&iviS^  the  fear  of  the  gods.  Liv. 

III.  The  Partitive  Genitive  designates  the  whole  of 
which  a  ^x^rt  is  taken  : 

Quia  vestrum,  which  of  you  ?  Cic.  Vltae  pars,  a  part  of  life.  Cie. 
Omnium  sSpientisstmus,  the  wisest  of  all  men.  Cic. 

1.  Nostrum  and  Vestrum. — As  partitive  genitives,  nostrum  and  ves- 
trum are  generally  used  instead  of  nostri  and  vesiri. 

2.  Use. — The  Partitive  Genitive  is  used 

1)  With />ars,  nemo^  nihil ;  nouns  of  quantity,  number,  weight,  etc.: 
modius,  legio,  talentum,  and  any  nouns  used  partitively  : 

EquOrum  pars,  a  part  of  the  horses.  Liv.  M6dimnum  tritici,  a  hushel  of 
wheat.  Cic.  Pfeciiniae  i^lQxiinm,  a  talent  of  money.  Nep.  Quorum  Caius, 
of  whom  Caius.  Cic. 

2)  With  Numeral*  used  Substantively : 


lis  GENITIVE   WITU   NOUNS. 

Quorum  qna.tt\ioT,  four  of  whom.  Liv.  Sfipientum  octSvus,  the  eighth 
of  the  wise  men.  Hor. 

(1)  But  the  Genitive  should  not  be  used  when  the  two  words  refer  to  the  same 
number  of  objects,  even  though  of  be  used  in  English :  Vivi  qui  (not  quorum)  doo 
supersunt,  the  living^  of  whom  two  survive.  Cic. 

3)  With  Pronouns  and  Adjectives  used  substantively,  especially  (1) 
with  hie,  ille^  quis,  qui,  alter,  vter,  neuter,  etc.  ;  (2)  with  comparatives  and 
superlatives;  (3)  with  neuters  :  hoc,  id,  illud,  quid ;  multum,  plus,  pluri- 
mum,  minus,  minimum,  tantum,  quantum,  etc. ;  (4)  with  omnes  and  cuncti, 
rarely : 

Quis  vestrum,  which  of  you?  Cic.  Consulum  alter,  one  of  the  consuls. 
Liv.  Prior  horum,  the  former  of  these.  Nep.  Gallorum  fortissimi,  thi 
kravest  of  the  Gauls.  Caes.  Id  temporis,  that  (of)  time.  Cic.  Multum 
dperae,  much  (of)  service.  Cic.  Hominum  cuncti,  all  of  the  men.  Ovid. 
But  omnes  and  cuncfi  generally  agree  with  their  nouns  :  Omnes  homines, 
all  men.  Cic. 

Pronouns  and  Adjectives,  except  neuters,  when  used  with  the  Part.  Gen.  take 
the  gender  of  the  Gen.  unless  they  agree  directly  with  some  other  word ;  see  Consil- 
ium alter  above. 

4)  With  a  few  Adverbs  used  substantively;  (1)  with  adverbs  of  Quan- 
tity— ahunde,  affatim,  nimis,  parum,  partim,  quoad,  satis,  etc. ;  (2)  with 
adverbs  of  Place — hie,  hue,  nusquam,  uhi,  etc. ;  (3)  with  adverbs  of 
Extent,  degree,  etc. — eo,  hue,  quo  ;  (4)  with  superlatives  : 

Armorum  aflfatim,  abundance  of  arms.  Liv.  Lucis  nimis,  too  much  (of) 
light.  Ovid.  SSpientiae  parum,  little  (of)  wisdom.  Sail.  Partim  copiarum, 
a  portion  of  the  forces.  Liv.  Quoad  ejus  fac6re  p5test,  as  far  as  (as  much  of 
it  as)  he  is  able  to  do.  Cic.  Nusquam  gentium,  nowhere  in  the  world.  Cic. 
Hue  arrSgantiae,  to  this  degree  of  insolence.  Tac.  Maxime  omnium,  most 
of  all.  Cic. 

3,  Loci  and  locOrum  occur  as  partitive  genitives  in  expressions  of 
time: 

IntSrea  16ci,  in  the  mean  time.  Ter.     Adhuc  IScorum,  hitherto.  Plant. 

4.  For  id  genus  r=.  ejus  generis,  sScus,  libra,  etc.,  see  380.  2. 
6.  For  Predicate  Genitive,  see  401. 

IV.  The  Genitive  of  Chaeacteeistic  designates 
character  or  quality,  including  value,  price,  size,  weight, 
age,  etc. 

Vir  maximi  consilii,  a  man  of  very  great  prudence.  Nep.  Mitis  ing5- 
nii  juvenis,  a  youth  of  mild  disposition.  Liv.  Testis  magni  pretii,  a  gar- 
ment of  great  value.  Cic.  Exsilium  decem  annorum,  an  exile  of  ten  years. 
Nep.    Corona  parvi  pondSris,  a  crown  of  small  weight.  Liv.  See  402,  III.  1. 

1.  A  noun  designating  character  or  quality  may  be  either  in  the  Gen. 
or  in  the  Abl.    See  428. 


GENITIVE   WITH   NOUNS.  1V9 

1)  But  it  must  be  accompanied  by  an  adjective,  numeral,  or  pronoun,  unless  it 
be  a  compound  containing  sucli  modifier;  as  hujusmddi  —  hujus  modi :  trldui,  from 
tres  dies ;  bldui,  from  duo  (bis)  dies.  "With  tridui  and  bidui,  via  or  spatium  is  some- 
times omitted:  Aberant  bidui.  They  were  two  days''  journey  distant.    Cia 

V.  The  Genitive  of  Specification  has  the  general 
force  of  an  Appositive  (363)  : 

Virtu3  contJnentiae,  the  virtite  of  self-control.  Cic.  Verbum  volupta- 
tis,  the  word  (of)  pleasure.  Cic.  Oppidum  ADtiochlae,  tJie  city  of  Antioch. 
Cic,     TqWm^  AyxsonmG^  the  land  of  Amonia.     Virg. 

397.  Peculiarities. — We  notice  the  following : 

1.  The  GoYERNiNQ  Word  is  often  omitted.    Thus 

Aedes,  templum,  disctpulus^  homo,  juv^nis,  piier^  etc. ;  caicsa^  gratia^ 
and  indeed  any  word  when  it  can  be  readily  supplied : 

Ad  Jovis  {sc.  aedem),  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter.  Li  v.  Hannibal  annO- 
rum  nSvem  {sc.  puer),  Hannibal  a  boy  nine  years  of  age.  Liv.  Naves  sui 
coramodi  (causa)  fecerat,  He  had  built  vessels  for  his  own  adva?itage.  Caes. 
Conferre  vitam  Trebonii  cum  Dolabellae  (sc.  vita),  to  compare  the  life  of 
IWbonius  with  that  of  Dolabella.  Cic. 

1)  The  governing  word  is  generally  omitted  when  it  has  been  expressed  before 
another  Gen.  as  in  the  last  example ;  and  then  the  second  Gen.  is  sometimes  attracted 
Into  the  case  of  the  governing  word :  Natura  hominis  bcluis  (for  beludrum  naturae) 
antecC'dit,  The  nature  of  man  surpasses  (that  of)  the  brutes.    Cic. 

2)  In  many  cases  where  we  supply  son,  daughter,  husband,  wife,  the  ellipsis 
is  only  apparent,  the  Gen.  depending  directly  on  the  proper  noun  expressed : 

Hasdrubal  Gisconis,  Gisco''s  Uasdrubal,  or  Ilasdrubal  the  son  of  Gisco.  Liv. 
Hectdris  Andr6mache,  Hector's  Andromadie,  or  Andromache  the  wife  of  Hector. 
Virg. 

2.  Two  Ge^titives  are  sometimes  used  with  the  same  noun — 
generally  one  Subjective  and  one  Objective  : 

Memmii  6dium  potentiae,  Memmius^s  hatred  of  power.  Sail. 

3.  Genitive  and  Possessive. — A  Genitive  sometimes  accompa- 
nies a  Possessive,  especially  the  Gen.  of  ipse,  solus,  units,  om,nis : 

Tua  ipslus  Smicltia,  your  oion  friendship.  Cic.  Meum  solius  peccatum, 
my  fault  alone.  Cic.     Numen  meum  absentis,  my  name  while  absent.  Cic. 

Here  ipsilus  agrees  with  tui  (of  you)  involved  in  tua;  solius  and  absentia,  with 
tnei  (fit  me)  Involved  in  meum. 

338.  Other  Constmctions — for  the  Genitive  occur. 

1.  Ablative  of  Characteristic.     See  428. 

2.  An  Adjective  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Genitive: 

Bellica  gloria  =  belli  glSria,  the  glory  of  war.  Cic.    Conjux  Hect5re« 
=  conjux  HectSris,  the  wife  of  Hector.  Virg. 
9 


180  GENITIVE    WITH   NOUNS.      WITH   ADJECTIVES. 

3.  The  PossESSiTE  is  regularly  used  for  the  Subjective  Gen.  of  Per- 
Bonal  pronouns,  rarely  for  the  Objective : 

Mea  domus,  my  house.  Cic.    Fama  tua,  your  fame.  Cic. 

4.  Case  with  Preposition.— A  case  with  a  preposition  may  be  us^d  for 
the  Gen. ;  especially,  1)  For  the  Objective  Genitive^  the  Accusative  with 
in,  erga,  adversus  : — 2)  For  the  Partitive  Genitive^  the  Accusative  veith 
rater,  ante,  apud,  or  the  Ablative  with  ex,  de,  in: 

Odium  in  hominum  genus,  hatred  of  or  towards  tJie  race  of  men.  Cic. 
Erga  vos  amor,  love  toimrds  you.  Cic.  Inter  reges  opulentissimus,  the  most 
wealthy  of  (among)  Icings.  Sen.    Unns  ex  viris,  one  of  the  heroes.  Cic. 

5.  A  Dative  depending  on  the  VEiia  is  sometimes  used,  instead  of  the 
Genitive  depending  on  a  noun  : 

Urbi  fundamenta  jacere,  to  lay  the  foundations  of  (for)  the  city.  Liv. 
Caesari  ad  pedes  projicere,  to  cast  at  the  feet  of  Caesar,  i.  e.,  before  Caesar 
at  bis  feet.  Caes.     See  392.  1. 

1)  The  two  constructions,  the  Gen.  and  the  Case  with  Prep,,  are  sometimes  com- 
bined in  the  same  sentence. 

II.  Genitive  with  Adjectives. 
RULE  XVII -Genitive. 

399.  Many  Adjectives  take  a  Genitive  to  complete 
their  meaning : 

Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise.  Cic.  Otii  dipidus,  desirous  of  leis- 
ure. Liv.  Amans  sui  virtus,  virtue  fond  of  itself.  Cic.  Efficiens  volup- 
tM\s^  productive  of  pleasure.  Cic.     G\oi\3lQ  xcJ^uiQv^  mindful  of  glory.  Liv. 

1.  FoECE  OF  THIS  Gexitive. — The  genitive  here  retains  its 
usual  force — of^  in  respect  of—an^  may  be  used  after  adjectives 
which  admit  this  relation. 

2.  Adjectives  with  the  Gexitive. — The  most  common  are 

1)  Verbals  in  ax  and  participles  in  ans  and  ens  used  adjectively  : 

Virtutum  {i^niXy  productive  of  virtues.  Liv.  TSnax  propositi,  ^e^iamws 
(steadfast)  of  purpose.  Ilor.  Amans  patriae,  loving  (fond  of)  his  country. 
Cic.    Fugiens  laboris,  shunning  labor.  Caes. 

2)  Adjectives  denoting?  desire,  Tcnowledge,  sMll,  recollection, 
participation,  mastery,  fulness,  and  their  contraries  : 

(1)  Desirb,  Aversion — avidus,  dipidus,  studiosus  ;  fastidiosuSj  etc. ; 
sometimes  aemulus  and  invidus,  which  also  take  the  Dative : 

Contentionis  ciipidus,  desirous  of  contention.  Cic.  Sapientiae  stiidiosus, 
studious  of  (student  of)  wisdom.  Cic. 

(2)  Knowledge,  Skill,   Recollkction  with   their  contraries — giidr^is, 


GENITIVE  WITH   ADJECTIVES.  181 

tgndrus,  consvUus,  conscius,  inscius,  nescius,  certus,  incerius,  suspensns  ;  pr5- 
vultis,  prudtns,  imprudcm  ;  perUus,  impentus,  riidis,  insuetus  ;  memor^  inxr 
memor,  etc. : 

Rei  gnSrus,  acquainted  icith  the  tJdng.  Cic.  Prfldens  rei  milltSris,  skill- 
ed in  military  science.  Nep.  PSritus  belli,  skilled  in  war.  Nep.  Insuetus 
ISboris,  unaccustomed  to  labor,  Caes.  Gloriae  mfimor,  mindful  of  glory.  Liv. 
Immfemor  hhix'^ilcn,  forgetful  of  kindness.  Cic. 

(3)  Participation,  Fulness,  Mastery,  with  their  contraries — affinis,  con- 
sore,  exsors,  er-perSy  particeps  ;  plinuSyfertHis,  refertus,  egenus,  inops,  vacuus; 
pdtenSy  impotens,  compos,  impos,  etc. : 

Affinis  culpae,  sharing  the  fault.  Cic.  RStionis  part^ceps,  endowed  with 
(sharing)  reason.  Cic.  R&tionis  expers,  destitute  of  reason.  Cic.  Vita  m6- 
tus  plena,  a  life  full  of  fear.  Cic.  Mei  p6tens  sum,  /  am  mmter  of  myself. 
Liv.    Virtutis  compos,  capable  of -virtue.  Cic. 

3.  Other  Adjectives  also  occur  with  the  Genitive. 

1)  A  few  of  a  signification  kindred  to  the  above : 

Minlfestus  rfirum  cSpitSlium,  convicted  of  capital  crimes.  Sail.  Noxius 
conjurStiOnis,  guilty  of  conspiracy.  Tac. 

2)  Similis,  assimilis,  consvmilis,  dissimUis ;  par  and  dispar,  especially 
to  denote  internal  or  essential  likeness.    See  391.  2.  4). 

3)  Sometimes  ali^nus,  communis,  propHus,  publicus,  sdcer,  vicinus : 
Alienus  dignitatis,  inconsistent  with  dignity.  Cic.    Viri  proprius,  char^ 

acteristic  of  a  man.  Cic. 

4)  In  the  poets  and  late  prose  writers,  especially  Tacitus,  a  Genitive  of 
Capse  occurs  with  a  few  adjectives,  especially  those  denoting  emotion  or  feel- 
ing, and  a  Gen.  having  the  force  of— in,  in  respect  of,  for,  especially  animi 
and  ingenii,  with  many  adjectives  : 

Anxius  ^6teniiae,  anxious  for  power.  Tac.  Lassusmilitiae,  ^«Vc</q/'7n27- 
itary  service.  Hot.  See  Gen.  with  Verbs,  409.  2  and  4.  Aeger  Sulmi,  afflicted 
in  mind.  Liv.  Anxius  &nimi,  anxious  in  mind.  Sail.  Integer  aevi,  whoU 
in  respect  of  age,  i.  e.,  in  the  bloom  of  youth.  Virg. 

4.  Partitive  Genitive  with  Adjectives.     See  396.  III.  3). 

5.  Other  CoNSTRrcTioNs  for  the  Genitive  also  occur : 

1)  Dative:  MSnus  svibitis  fivldae,  hands  ready  for  sudden  events.  Tac. 
InsuCtus  moribus  RomSnis,  unaccustomed  to  Roman  mxinners.  Liv.  FScind- 
ri  mens  conscia,  a  mind  conscious  of  crime.  Cic. 

2)  Accusative  with  Preposition  :  Insufitus  ad  pugnam,  unaccustomed 
to  battle.  Liv.  Ferillia  Vid  omnia.,  productive  for  all  things.  Plin.  Avidus  in 
novas  res,  eager  for  new  things.  Liv. 

3)  Ablative  with  or  without  Preposition:  Priidens  in  jure  civlli, 
learned  in  civil  law.  Cic.  Riidis  in  jilre  civili,  uninMructed  in  civil  law. 
Cic.  "Rls  dQ  r^hws  con^cim,  aware  (f  thme  things.  C\c.  Vficuus  de  dgfensO- 
rihns,  destitute  of  defenders.  Caes.  C^r\s  \lkc\x\x9,  free  from  cares.  Cic.  R6- 
fertus  bSnis,  replete  with  blessings.  Cic. 

6.  The  Genitive  and  Dative  occur  with  the  same  adjective : 
Sfbi  conscii  culpae,  conscious  to  themselves  of  fault.  Cic. 


182  GENITIVE  WITH   VERBS. 

III.  Genitive  with  Veebs. 

400.  The  Genitive  with  Verbs  includes 
I.  Predicate  Genitive. 

II.  Genitive  in  Special  Constructions. 

I.  Predicate  Genitive, 
RULE  XVIII-Predicate  Genitive. 

401.  A  Predicate  IS'oun  denoting  a  different  person 
or  thing  from  its  Subject  is  put  in  the  Genitive : 

Omnia  hostium  6rant,  All  things  belonged  to  the  enemy?  Li  v.  SSnatiuj 
Hannibalis  Srat,  The  senate  was  HannihaX's^  i.  e.,  in  his  interest.  Liv.  Judl- 
cis  est  verum  sequi,  To  follow  the  truth  is  the  duty  of  a  judge?  Cic.  Parvi 
prStii  est,  It  is  of  small  value.  Cic. 

1.  Pkedicate  Genitive  and  Predicate  Nominative. — The  Predicate  Gen- 
itive is  distinguished  from  the  Predicate  Nominative  and  Accusative  by  the 
fact  that  it  always  designates  a  different  person  or  thing  from  its  subject, 
while  they  always  designate  the  same  person  or  thing  as  their  subjects.  See 
SG2. 

2.  Predicate  Genitive  and  Predicate  Adjective. — The  genitive  is 
often  nearly  or  quite  equivalent  to  a  predicate  adjective  (353.  1) :  hominis  est 
=  humdnum  est,  it  is  the  mark  of  a  man,  is  human  ;  stulti  est  =  stultum  est, 
it  is  foolish.  The  Gen.  is  the  regular  construction  in  adjectives  of  one  end- 
ing :  sapientis  est  (for  sapiens  est),  it  is  the  part  of  a  wise  man,  is  wise. 

402.  Varieties  of  Predicate  Genitive. — The  principal  are, 

I.  Subjective  or  Possessive  Genitive — generally  best  rendered  by — 
of  property  of  duty^  business  j  mark,  cJiaracteristic  of: 

Haec  hostium  Srant,  These  things  were  of  (belonged  to)  the  enemy.  Liv. 
Est  impgratoris  superare,  It  is  the  duty  of  a  commander  to  conquer.  Caes. 

II.  Partitive  Genitive  : 

Fies  nobHium  fontium,  You  will  become  one  of  the  noble  fountains. 
Hor. 

III.  Genitive  op  Characteristic — including  value,  price,  size,  weight, 
etc.: 

Summae  facultatis  est,  He  is  (a  man)  of  the  highest  ability.  Cic.  OpSra 
magni  fuit,  The  assistance  was  of  great  valu£.  Nep. 

1.  The  Genitive  of  Price  or  Value  is  generally  an  adjective  belonging  to 
pretii  understood;  but  sometimes ^r^^«*  is  expressed  : 

1  Lit.  were  of  the  enemy,  or  were  tJie  enemy^s. 
«  Lit.  is  of  a  judge. 


GENITIVE  WITH  VEEBS.  183 

Parvi  prfitii  est,  It  is  of  little  value.  Cic.   See  396.  IV. 
2.  IHce  and  Value  with  verbs  of  buying,  sellitig,  and  the  like,  are  ex- 
pressed 

i)  Regularly  by  the  Ablative.    See  416. 

i)  Sometimes  by  the  Genitive  of  adjectives,  like  the  Pred.  Gen.  of  price: 

Vendo  frumentum  pluris,  I  sell  grain  at  a  higher  price.    Cic. 

But  tho  Gen.  la  thus  used  only  In  indefinite  and  general  expressioos  of  prica 
and  value.    A  deflnito  price  or  value  regularly  requires  the  Ablative. 

3)  In  familiar  discourse  sometimes  by  the  genitives,  assis,  Jlocci,  nihiU, 
pili  and  a  few  others : 

Non  flocci  pend6re,  not  to  care  a  straw  (lock  of  wool) /or.  Plant. 

8.  Blhii  and  Aequi,  as  Predicate  Genitives,  occur  in  such  expressions  as 
aequi  bdni/dcere  and  bdni  considered  to  take  in  good  part 

403.  Verbs  with  Predicate  Genitive.— The  Predicate 
genitive  occurs  most  frequently  with  sum  and  fcicio,  but 
sometimes  also  with  verbs  oi  see^ning  and  regarding  : 

Haec  hostium  firant,  These  things  were  the  enemy's.  Liv.  Oram  Ro- 
mSnae  ditidnis  fecit,  He  brought  tlie  coast  under  (of)  Roman  rule.  Liv. 

1.  Transitive  Verbs  of  this  class  admit  in  the  active,  an  Accusative  with 
the  Genitive,  as  in  the  second  example. 

2.  With  Verbs  of  Seeming  and  Regarding — vldeor,  hSbeo,  dGco,  piito, 
etc.— esse  may  generally  be  supplied : 

Hdmiais  videtur,  It  seems  to  be  (esse)  the  mark  of  a  man.  Cic. 

404.  Other  Constructions  for  the  Genitive  also  occur. 

1.  The  Possessive  is  regularly  used  for  the  Pred.  Gen.  of  personal  pro- 
nouns: 

Est  tuum  (not  tui)  ^dgre,  It  is  your  duty  to  see.  Cic. 

2.  The  Genitive  with  OffXcium,  Munus^  Negotium,  Proprium  : 
Senatus  officium  est,  It  is  the  duty  of  the  senate.  Cic.     Fuit  proprium 

pSpiili,  It  was  characteristic  of  the  people.  Cic. 

The  Predicate  Genitive  could  in  most  instances  be  explained  by  supplying  some 
such  word,  but  it  seems  to  be  more  in  accordance  with  the  idiom  of  the  Latin  to  re- 
gard the  genitive  as  complete  in  itself. 

8.  The  Ablative  of  Characteristic.    See  428. 


II.  Genitive  in  Special  Constructions. 

405.  The  Genitive,  either  alone  or  with  an  Accusative, 
is  used  in  a  few  constructions  which  deserve  separate  men- 
tion. 


184  GENITIVE   WITH   VEKBS. 

RULE  XIX.— Genitive  with  Certain  Verbs. 

406.  The  Genitive  is  used 

I.  With  misereor  and  missresco: 

MisSrere  laborum,  Pity  the  labors.  Virg.  MisSrescite  regis,  Pity  th* 
king.  Virg. 

II.  With  recorder,  memini,  ren^iniscor,  and  obliviscor: 

Meminit  praeteritorum,  He  remembers  the  past.  Cic.  Oblltus  sum  mei, 
I  have  forgotten  myself .  Ter.  Flagitiorum  recordari,  to  recollect  base  deeds. 
Cic.     Reminisci  virtutis,  to  remember  virtue.  Caes. 

III.  With  refert  and  interest: 

Illorum  refert,  It  concerns  them.  Sail.  Interest  omnium,  It  is  the  in- 
terest of  all.  Cic. 

1.  Explanation.— The  Genitive  may  be  explained  as  dependent  upon  re 
in  refert,  and  upon  re  or  causa  to  be  supplied  with  interest.  With  the  other 
rerbs  it  accords  with  the  Greek  idiom,  and  with  verbs  of  remembering  and 
forgetting,  it  also  conforms  to  the  analogy  of  the  Gen.  with  the  adjectives 
memor  and  imnfiemor  (399.  2.  2)  ). 

2.  Construction  AccoRniNG  to  sense. — The  expression  Venit  mihi  in 
mentem.  It  occurs  to  my  mind,  equivalent  to  reminiscor,  is  sometimes  con- 
strued with  the  Gen. : 

Venit  mihi  PlStonis  in  mentem,  The  recollection  of  Plato  comes  to  my 
mind,  or  I  recollect  Plato.  Cic.  But  the  Nom.  is  also  admissible :  Non  v6nit 
in  mentem  pugna.  Does  not  the  battle  come  to  mind?  Liv. 

407.  Other  Constructions  with  verbs  of  Remember^ 
ing  and  Forgetting  also  occur : 

1.  The  Accusative:  MeminSram  Paulum,  I  remembered  Paulus.  Cic. 

This  is  the  regular  construction  for  the  thing  (not  person),  with  ricordor,  and, 
if  it  be  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  also  with  other  verbs : 

Triumphos  recordari,  to  recall  triumphs.  Cic.  Ea  rcminiscere,  Bememher  tho8« 
things.  Cic. 

2.  The  Ablative  with  De :  RScordare  de  ceteris.  Bethink  yourself  of  the 
Others.  Cic. 

This  is  the  regular  construction  for  the  person  with  ricordor,  and  occurs  also 
with  memini,  though  that  verb  takes  the  Ace.  of  a  contemporary. 

408.  The  Construction  with  Refert  and  Interest  is  as 
follows : 

1.  The  Person  or  Thing  interested  is  denoted 
1)  By  the  Genitive  as  under  the  rule. 


GENITIVE  WITH   VERBS.  185 

2)  By  the  Ablative  Feminine  of  the  Possessive  : 

Mea  refert,  It  concerns  me,  Ter.    Interest  meS,  It  interests  me.  Cic 

This  possessive  regularly  takes  the  place  of  the  Gen.  of  personal  pronouns,  and 

may  b«  explained  as  agreeing  with  re  \a  refert^  an<l  with  re  or  cauaa  to  be  supplied 

with  inter enL 

S)  By  the  Daiive,  or  Aeetimtivs  with  or  without  Ad  ;  bat  rarely,  and 
chiefly  with  ref^t,  which  moreover  often  omits  the  person : 

Quid  rCJfert  viventi,  Wluit  does  it  concern  oiie  living  T  Ilor,  Ad  mc  rCfert,  It 
concerns  me.  Plaut 

2.  The  Subject  op  Importance,  or  that  which  involves  the  interest,  is 
expressed  by  an  Infinitive  or  Clause,  or  by  a  Neuter  Pronoun  : 

Interest  omnium  recto  fac^re.  To  do  rigid  is  Vie  interest  qfuU,  Cic  Vestra.  hoc 
Interest,  This  interests  yo a.  Cic. 

S.  The  Degueb  or  Inteuest  is  expressed  by  an  Adverb,  by  a  Neuter 
used  adverbially,  or  by  a  Gen.  of  Value  (402-  1  and  2)  : 

Vestra  masime  interest.  It  especially  interests  yotu,  Cic  Quid  nostri  refert, 
Wliai  does  it  concern  lis  ?  Cic    Magni  interest  mea.  It  greatly  interests  me.  Cic 

4-  The  Object  or  Exd  for  which  it  is  important  is  expressed  by  the  Ac- 
cusative with  ad,  rarely  by  the  Dative : 

Ad  honorem  nostrum  intCrest,  It  is  important  for  onr  Tumor.  Cic 

409.  GKxmvE  with  othee  Verbs. — Many  other  verbs 
sometimes  take  the  Genitive : 

1.  Some  Verbs  of  Plenty  and  Want^  as  egeo,  indigeo^  like  adjectives  of 
the  same  meaning  (399.  2.  2) ) : 

Virtus  exerdtationis  tadJget,  Vii'tiu  requires  exercise,  CXc.  Auxflli  SgSre,  to 
need  aid.  Caes. 

2.  Some  Verbs  o^  Emotion  or  Feeling  like  adjectives  (399,  8.  4)  ) : 
Anuni  pendeo,  I azn  uncertain  in  mind.  Cic    Discrucior  ilnlmi,  /  am  troubled 

in  mind.  PlauL 

3.  A  few  Verbs  denoting  Mastery  or  Participation  like  adjectives  (399. 

2.  2)  ),  potior,  udipiscor,  regno  : 

STcTliae  p?)titus  est.  He  became  master  of  Sicily.  Ncp.  Rerum  adeptus  est,  lie 
obtained  the  power.  Tac    Kegnavit  populOrum,  He  was  king  of  the  people.  Hon 

4.  A  Genitive  of  Separation  or  Cause  occurs  in  the  poets,  with  a  few 
verbs — ahstineo,  diciplo,  desino,  desisto  ;  miror  : 

Abstlnere  Inirum,  to  abstain  from  anger.  n<»r.  Laborum  dGcipitur,  He  is  &fr 
(fuUed  of  his  labors.  Hot.  Dcsine  querelarum.  Cease  from  complaints.  Hot.  D6- 
slstcre  pugnac,  to  desist  from  the  battle.    Virg. 

5.  Saiago  and  Satagito  admit  a  genitive  dependent  upon  sat  (306.  4)  ), 
and  verbs  of  Promising  admit  the  Gen.  damni  infecti  : 

Rcrum  Butagcre,  to  he  occupied  tcith  (have  enough  of)  business.  Ter. 

6.  Genitive  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives.     See  563  and  563.  5. 


186  ACCUSATIVE  AND   GENITIVE. 

ETTLE  XX.— Accusative  and  Genitive. 

410.  A  few  transitive  verbs  take  both  the  Accuss^ 
tive  of  the  Person  and  the  Genitive  of  the  Thing  : 
I.  Verbs  oi  Reminding^  Admonishmg. 
11.  Verbs  of  Accusing^  Convicting^  Acquitting. 
in.  Miseret,  JPoenitet,  JPiidetj  Taedet,  and  JPiget. 

I.  Reminding,  etc. — Te  amicitiae  commonefacit,  ITe  reminds  you  of 
friendship.  Cic.  Milites  necessitatis  monet,  He  reminds  the  soldiers  of  the 
necessity.  Ter. 

II.  Accusing,  etc. — ^Viros  scSleris  arguis.  You  accuse  men  of  crime. 
Cic.  Levitatis  eum  convincere,  to  convict  him  of  levity.  Cic.  Absolvere 
injuriae  eum,  to  acquit  him  of  injustice.  Cic. 

III.  MiSERET,  PoENiTET,  ETC.— Eorum  nos  misgret,  We  pity  them  (it 
moves  our  pity  of  them).  Cic.  Consilii  me  poenitet,  /  repent  of  my  pur- 
pose. Cic.    Me  stultitiae  meae  pudet,  I  am  ashamed  of  my  folly.  Cic. 

1.  The  Genitive  of  Thing  designates,  with  verbs  oi  reminding^  etc., 
that  to  which  the  attention  is  called ;  with  verbs  of  accusing^  etc.,  the 
crime,  charge,  and  with  mlseret^  poenitet^  etc.,  the  object  which  produces 
the  feeling.     See  examples. 

2.  Passive  Construction. — The  personal  verbs  included  under  this 
Rule  retain  the  Genitive  in  the  Passive : 

Accusatus  est  proditiSnis,  He  was  accused  of  treason.  Nep. 

3.  Verbs  of  Reminding,  moneo,  admoneo,  commoneo,  commonefdcioj 
sometimes  take,  instead  of  the  Genitive, 

1)  The  Accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  rarely  of  a  sub- 
utantive,  thus  admitting  two  accusatives : 

Illud  me  admSnes,  You  admonish  me  of  that.  Cic, 

2)  The  Ablative  with  de,  moneo  generally  so : 

De  proelio  vos  adraonui,  I  have  reminded  you  of  the  battle.  Cic. 

4.  Verbs  of  Accusing,  Convicting,  sometimes  take,  instead  of  the 
Genitive  of  the  crime,  etc., 

1)  The  Genitive  with  nomine  or  crlmine  : 

Nomine  conjurStionis  damnati  sunt,  They  were  condemned  on  the  charge 
ef  conspiracy.  Cic. 

2)  The  Accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  rarely : 
Id  me  accusas,  You  accuse  me  of  that.  Plaut. 

8)  The  Ablative  alone  or  with  a  preposition,  generally  de  : 

De  pScuniis  r6p§tundis  damnStus  est,  He  was  convicted  of  extortion.  Cia 

5.  With  Verbs  of  Condemning,  the  Punishment  may  be  expressed 


GENITIVE   WITH   VERBS   AND   ADVERBS.  187 

1)  My  the  Genitive  : 

CSpitis  condemnare,  to  condemn  to  death.  Cic. 

(1)   VT)ti  damndri,  to  be  condemned  to  fulfil)  a  vow  =  to  obtain  a  wish. 

2)  By  the  Accusative  with  a  preposition,  generally  ad : 

Ad  bestias  condemnare,  to  condemn  to  the  wild  beasts.  Suet. 

3)  By  the  Ablative;  and,  in  the  poets,  sometimes  by  the  Dative: 
C&plte  damnare,  to  condemn  to  death.  Cic. 

6.  With  MiSERET,  PoENiTET,  PuDET,  Taedet,  and  PiOET,  an  Infinitive 
or  Clauge  is  sometimes  used,  rarely  a  neuter  pronoun  or  nihil: 

Me  poenltet  vixisse,  I  repent  having  lived.     Cic. 

1)  Like  Mls^ei  are  sometimes  used  mWrescii,  commUirescit^  mlsiretur,com- 
it*\Mretur.    Li  lie  Taedet  are  used  pertaedet,  pertaesum  est 

2)  PUdet  Bomctimes  takes  the  Gen,  of  the  Person  before  whom  one  is  ashamed: 
Me  tui  pudct,  lam  ashamed  in  your  presence.  Ter.    Pudet  hominum,  It  in  a 

akame  in  the  sight  of  men.  Liv. 

8)  Pertaesus  admits  the  Accusative  of  the  object: 

Pertacsus  igniiviam  suam,  disgusted  icith  his  ovm  inaction.  Suet 

7.  The  Accusative  and  Genitive  occur  with  other  Verbs.— Thus 

1)  With  some  Verbs  of  Freeing  with  the  accessory  notion  of  acquitting: 
Eum  culpae  libferSre,  to  free  him  from  blame,  i.  e.,  to  acquit  him  of 

fault.  Liv.     Sopurgo,  decipio,  and  the  like. 

2)  With  a  few  Verbs  of  Filling,  like  adjectives  and  verbs  of  plenty 
(399.  2.  2)  and  409.  1),  especially  compleo  and  impUo : 

Multitudlnem  rCligionis  implCvit,  He  inspired  (&l\ed)t7ie  multitude  with 
religion.  Liv.    See  419.  2. 

3)  With  a  few  transitive  verbs  of  Emotion  or  Feeling  (409.  2),  rarely: 
Te  angis  finlmi,  You  make  ydurself  anxious  in  mind.  Plant. 

rV.  Genitive  with  Adverbs. 

41 1.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  a  few  Adverbs  : 

1.  With  Partitives.     See  396.  IIL  2. 

2.  With  Prldie  and  Postridie,  perhaps  dependent  upon  die  contained 
in  them,  and  with  JEr</o  and  Tenus,  originally  nouns : 

Pridie  ejus  di6i,  on  the  day  before  that  day.  Caes.  Postridie  ejus  di6i, 
on  the  day  after  that  day.  Caes.  Virtutis  ergo,  on  account  of  virtue.  Cic. 
Lumborum  tSnus,  as  far  as  the  loins.  Cic.   For  tenus  with  the  Abi.,  see  434. 

SECTION  VII. 

ABLATIVE. 

412.  The  Ablative  in  its  primary  meaning  is  closely  re- 
lated to  the  Genitive ;  but  in  its  general  use,  it  corresponds 
to  the  English  objective  with— ^rom,  Jy,  //i,  with.,  and  ex- 
presses various  adverbial  relations.    It  is  accordingly  used 


188  ABLATIVE    OF    CAUSE,  MANNER,  MEANS. 

withYerbs  and  Adjectives,  while  the  genitive,  as  the  case  of 
adjective  relations,  is  most  common  with  Nouns.   See  393. 

413.  The  Ablative  is  used  as 

I.  Ablative  of  Cause,  Manner,  Means — including 

1.  Ablative  of  Price. 

2.  Ablative  after  Comparatives. 

3.  Ablative  of  Difference. 

4.  Ablative  in  Special  Constructions. 

II.  Ablative  of  Place. 

III.  Ablative  of  Time. 

IV.  Ablative  of  Characteristic. 
V.  Ablative  of  Specification. 

VI.  Ablative  Absolute. 
VII.  Ablative  with  Prepositions. 

I.  Ablative  of  Cause,  Manner,  Means. 
RULE  XXI.— Cause,  Manner,  Means. 

414.  Cause,  Manner,  and  Means  are  denoted  by  the 
Ablative : 

Ars  utilitate  laudatur,  An  art  is  praised  because  of  its  usefulness.  Cic. 
Gloria  ducitur,  He  is  led  by  glory.  Cic.  Duobus  modis  fit,  It  is  done  in  two 
ways.  Cic.  Sol  omnia  luce  collustrat,  77ie  sun  illumines  all  things  with  its 
ligld.  Cic.  Aeger  erat  vulueribus,  He  was  ill  in  consequence  of  his  wounds. 
Nep.     Laetus  sorte  tua,  pleased  with  your  lot.  Hor. 

1.  Application  of  Eule. — This  ablative  is  of  very  frequent 
occurrence,  and  is  used  both  with  verbs  and  adjectives. 

2.  The  Ablative  of  Cause  designates  that  by  which,  by  rea- 
son of  which,  because  of  which,  in  accordance  with  which  anything 
is  or  is  done. 

1)  This  includes  such  ablatives  as  meo  judicio,  in  accordance  with  my 
opinion ;  mea  sententia,  Jussu,  impulsu,  momtu,  etc. ;  also  the  Abl.  with 
doleo,  gaudeo,  glorior,  laboro,  etc. 

The  Abl.  with  afflcio^  and  with  sto  in  the  sense  of  depend  upon,  abide  &?/,  is 
best  explained  as  Means.  Afflcio  and  the  Abl.  are  together  often  equivalent  to 
another  verb :  honore  afflc&re  =  honorare,  to  honor ;  admlruMbne,  officSre  =  ad- 
miruri,  to  admire. 

2)  With  Passive  and  Intransiti've  verbs,  Cause  is  regularly  expressed  by 
the  Abl.,  though  a  prsposition  with  the  Ace.  or  Abl.  sometimes  occurs: 

Amicitia  propter  se  expetitur,  Friendship  is  sought  for  itself.  Cic. 

3)  With  Transitive  verbs  the  Abl.  without  a  Prep,  is  rare ;  but  cau^a, 
gratia  and  ablatives  in  u  of  nouns  used  only  in  that  case  (134),  jussu,  rogdtu, 
manddtu,  etc.,  arc  thus  used;  sometimes  also  other  words 


ABLATIVE    OF   CAUSE,    MANNEli,    MEAN'S.  180 

In  other  cases,  Cause  in  the  sense  of— on  account  of,  because  of,  is  gene- 
rally expressed— (1)  by  a  Preposition  with  its  case:  ob,  propter,  de,  ex,prae, 
etc. ;  or  (2)  by  a  Perfect  Participle  with  an  Ablative : 

In  oppldum  propter  timoreni  s6se  ificlpiuut,  They  betake  tliemselves  into 
the  city  on  account  of  their  fear.  Caes.  Regni  ciipiditate  inductus  conjura- 
tionem  f^cit,  Injluenced  by  the  desire  of  ruling,  lie  formed  a  conspiracy.  Caes. 

Cupiditdte  in  the  2d  example  really  expresses  the  cause  of  the  action  fecit,  but 
by  Uio  use  of  iriductv^,  it  becomes  the  Abl.  of  Cause  with  that  participle. 

8.  Ablative  of  Manner.— This  ablative  is  regularly  accom» 
panied  by  some  modifier,  or  by  the  Prep,  cum;  but  a  few  ablatives, 
chiefly  those  signifying  manher — more^  ordine^  rdtiOne^  etc. — oc- 
cur without  such  accompaniment : 

Vi  surama,  with  the  greatest  violence.  Nep.  M5re  Persarum,  in  the  man- 
ner of  tlce  Persians.  Nep.    Cum  sllcntio  audire,  to  Joear  in  silence.  Liv. 

Per  with  the  Ace.  sometimes  denotes  Manner :  per  Tim,  violently. 

4.  Ablative  of  Means. — This  includes  the  Instrument  and  all 
other  Means  employed.     See  also  434.  2  ;  414,  2,  1). 

5.  Ablative  of  Agent. — This  designates  the  Person  by  whom 
anything  is  done  as  a  vi>luntary  agent,  and  takes  the  Prep.  A  or  Ab: 

Occisus  est  a  ThSbanis,  He  was  slain  by  the  Thebans.  Nep. 

1)  The  Abl.  without  a  Prep,  or  the  Accus.  with  per  is  sometimes  used, 
■^specially  when  the  Person  is  regarded  as  the  Means,  rather  than  as  the  Agent. 

Cornua  Niiraidis  firmat,  He  strengthens  the  wings  with  Numidians.  Liv. 
Per  Fabricium,  by  means  of  (through  the  agency  of)  Fabricius.  Cic. 
2)  Dative  of  Agent.     See  388. 

C.  Personification. — "When  anything  is  personified  as  agent, 
the  ablative  with  A  or  Ab  may  be  used  as  in  the  names  of  persons: 

Vinci  a  vCluptate,  to  he  conquered  by  pleasure.  Cic.  A  fortdna  ditam  oc- 
cS.sionem,  an  opportunity  furnished  by  fortune.  Nep. 

7.  Ablative  of  Accompaniment. — This  generally  takes  cum : 
Vivit  cum  Balbo,  He  lives  with  Balbus.  Cic.    But 

In  describing  military  movements,  the  preposition  is  often  omitted,  especially 
when  the  Abl.  is  qualified  by  an  adjective : 

Ingcnti  exercitu  profectus  est,  lie  set  out  with  a  large  army.  Liv. 

415.  Kindred  Uses  of  the  Ablative. — Kindred  to 
the  Ablative  of  Cause,  etc.,  are 

I.  The  Ablative  of  Price — ^that  by  which  the  trade  is 
effected. 

II.  The  Ablative  with  Comparatives — that  by  which  the 
comparison  is  eifccted. 

III.  The  Ablative  of  Diflference — that  by  which  one 
object  differs  from  another. 

IV.  The  Ablative  in  Special  Constructions. 


190  ABLATIVE   OP  PRICE. 

RULE  XXII.— Ablative  of  Price. 

416.  Pbice  is  generally  denoted  by  the  Ablative  : 

Vendidit  auro  patriam,  He  sold  his  country  for  gold.  Yirg.  ConduxU 
magno  domum,  He  hired  a  house  at  a  high  price.  Cic.  Multo  sanguine 
Poenis  victoria  stetit,  The  victory  cost  the  Carthaginians  (stood  to  the 
Carthaginians  at)  much  blood.  Li  v.  Quinquaginta  talentis  aestimari,  to  be 
valued  at  fifty  talents.  Nop.  Vile  est  -viginti  minis.  It  is  cheap  at  twenty 
minae.  Plant. 

1.  Th    Ablative  of  Price  is  used 

1)  With  verbs  of  buying,  selling,  hiring,  letting,  emo,  vendo,  conducOf 
loco,  veneo,  etc. 

2)  With  verbs  of  costing,  of  being  cheap  or  dear,  stOy  consto,  Uceo,  sum, 
etc. 

8)  With  verbs  of  valuing,  aestimo,  etc. 

4)  With  adjectives  of  value,  cams,  mndlis,  etc. 

2.  Exchanging. — With  verbs  of  exchanging — muto,  commuto,  etc. — the 
thing  received  is  generally  treated  as  the  price,  as  with  verbs  of  selling  : 

Pace  bellum  mutavit.  He  exchanged  war  for  peace.  Sail.  But  sometimes 
the  thing  given  is  treated  as  the  price,  as  with  verbs  of  buying,  or  is  put  in 
the  Abl.  with  cum :  Exsllium  patria  mutavit,  He  exchanged  country  for  exile. 
Curt. 

3.  Adverbs  op  Price  are  sometimes  used  :  bene  eniere^  to  purchase  well, 
i.  e.,  at  a  low  price ;  care  aestimdre,  to  value  at  a  high  price. 

4.  Genitive  op  Price.    See  402.  III. 

RULE  XXIII.— Ablative  with  Comparatives. 

417.  Comparatives  without  quam  are  followed  by 
the  Ablative : 

Nihil  est  amabilius  virtute,  Nothing  is  more  lovely  than  virtue.  Cic. 
Quid  est  melius  bonitate,  What  is  better  than  goodness  ?  Cic. 

1.  C0MPAEATIVE8  WITH  Quam  are  followed  by  tte  Nomina- 
tive, or  by  the  case  of  the  corresponding  noun  before  them : 

Hibernia  minor  quam  Britannia  existimatur,  Hibernia  is  considered  small- 
er than  Britannia.  Caes.  Agris  quam  urbi  terribilior,  more  terrible  to  the 
counting  than  to  the  city.  Liv. 

2.  Ablative,  when  admissible. — The  construction  with  quam 
is  the  full  form  for  which  the  Ablative  is  an  abbreviation.  This 
abbreviation  is  admissible  only  in  place  of  quam  with  the  Nomina- 
tive or  Accusative,  but  is  not  necessary  even  here  except  for  quam 
with  a  Relative : 


ABLATIVE  WITH   COMPARATIVES.      DIFFERENCE.         191 

Sclmus  sSlem  majorem  esse  terrS,  We  know  tJuU  the  sun  is  larger  than 
tlie  earth.  Cic.  Amicltia,  qua  nihil  uiSlius  hSbemus ;  friendship^  than  which 
we  have  nothing  better.  Cic.    See  also  examples  under  the  Rule. 

1)  In  the  first  example  the  Ablative  {terra)  is  admissible  but  not  necessary, 
quam  terram  might  have  been  used ;  but  In  the  second  example  the  Ablative  (.qua) 
ib  necessary,  the  conjunction  guam  would  be  inadmissible. 

2)  lu  the  examples  under  the  rule  the  ablatives  virtute  and  honitdte  are  both 
equivalent  to  quam  with  the  Nom.  quam  virtus  and  quam  bonltas,  which  might 
have  been  used. 

3)  Instead  of  the  Abl.,  a  Preposition  with  its  case,  ante,  prae,  praeter,  or  m>pra  is 
sometimes  used :  Ante  alios  immunior,  more  monstrous  <Aan  (before)  the  others.  Virg. 

3.  Construction  with  Plus,  Minus,  ^tc.—FIus,  mzmis,  ampliiis,  or 
longius,  with  or  without  qiiam,  is  often  introduced  in  expressions  of  num- 
ber and  quantity,  without  influence  upon  the  construction;  sometimes 
also  major,  minor,  etc. : 

Tecum  plus  annum  vixit,  He  lived  with  you  more  than  a  year.  Cic.  Mi- 
nus duo  millia,  less  than  two  thousand.  Liv. 

So  In  expressions  of  age :  natus  plus  triginta  annos,  having  been  torn  more  than 
thirty  years.  Tho  same  meaning  is  also  expressed  by— major  triginta  annos  natus, 
major  triginta  annis,  major  quam  triginta  annorum,  or  major  triginta  annorum. 

4.  Atque  or  Ac  for  Quam  occurs  chiefly  in  poetry  and  late  prose ; 
Arctius  atque  hSdfera,  more  closely  tlian  with  ivy.  Hor. 

5.  Alius  with  thb  Ablative  sometimes  occurs.  It  then  involves  a  com- 
parison, other  than : 

Quaerit  Slia  his,  He  seeks  otJur  things  than  these.  Plaut. 

6.  Peculiarities. — Quam  pro  denotes  disproportion,  and  many  ablatives 
— d/Jnione,  spe,  aequo,  Justo,  sdlUo,  etc. — are  often  best  rendered  by  clauses : 

Minor  caedes  quam  pro  victoria,  less  slaughter  than  was  proportionate  to 
thj  victory.  Liv.  Sfirius  spe  vgnit,  Be  cam^  later  than  was  hoped  (than  hope). 
Liv.    Plus  aequo,  m^re  than  is/air.  Cic. 


RULE  XXIV.— Ablative  of  Difference. 

418.  The  Measure  of  Difference  is  denoted  by 
the  Ablative : 

Uno  die  longiorem  mensem  faciunt,  They  make  the  month  one  day 
longer  (longer  by  one  day).  Cic.  Biduo  me  antdcessit,  He  preceded  me  by 
two  days.  Cic.  Sunt  magnitudlne  paulo  infra  Slephantos,  They  are  in  size 
a  little  below  the  elephant.  Caes. 

1.  The  Ablative  is  thus  used  with  all  words  involving  a  comparison, 
but  adverbs  often  supply  its  place :  Multum  rohustior,  much  more  robust. 

2.  The  Ablative  of  Difference  includes  the  Abl.  of  Distance  (378.  2),  and 
the  Abl.  with  ante,  post,  and  abhinc  in  expressions  of  time  (427). 


192  ABLATIVE   IN   SPECIAL   CONSTRUCTIONS. 

RULE  XXV.— Ablative  in  Special  Constructions. 
419.  The  Ablative  is  used 

I.  With  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  and  their  com 
pounds : 

Plurimis  rebus  fruimur  et  utimur,  We  enjoy  and  use  very  many  things. 
Cic.  Magna  est  praeda  potitus,  He  obtained  great  booty.  Nep.  Vesclmui-' 
bestiis,  We  live  upon  animals.  Cic. 

II.  With  fido,  confido,  nitor,  and  innitor: 

Nemo  potest  fortQnae  stabilltate  conf  idere,  No  one  can  trust  (confic'e 
in)  the  stability  of  fortune.  Cic.  Saius  veritate  nititur,  Safety  rests  upon 
truth.  Cic. 

III.  With  Verbs  and  Adjectives  of  Plenty  and  Want  : 

Non  egeo  medtclna,  I  do  not  need  a  remedy.  Cic.  Vacare  culpa,  to  be 
free  from  fault.  Cic.  Villa  abundat  lacte,  caseo,  melle ;  The  villa  abounds 
hi  milk,  cheese,  and  honey.  Cic.  Urbs  nuda  praesldio,  a  city  destitute  of 
defence.  Cic.     Virtute  praeditus,  endowed  with  virtue.  Cic. 

IV.  With  dignus,  indignus,  coutentus,  and  fretus : 

Digni  sunt  amicitia,  They  are  worthy  of  friendship.  Cic.  Xatura  parvo 
contenta,  nature  content  with  little.  Cic.  Fretus  amicis,  relying  upon  his 
frietids.  Liv. 

V.  With  bpus  and  usus: 

Auctoritate  tua  nobis  opus  est,  We  need  (there  is  to  us  a  need  of)  your 
authority.  Cic.     Usus  est  tua  mihi  opera,  /  need  your  aid.  Plaut. 

1.  Explanation. — This  Ablative  may  in  most  instances  be  readily  ex- 
plained as  the  Ablative  of  Cause  or  Means :  thus  itior,  I  use,  serve  myself 
by  means  of;  fruor,  I  enjoy,  delight  myself  with;  vescor,  I  feed  upon, 
feed  myself  with ;  fldo,  confido,  I  confide  in,  am  confident  because  of,  etc. 

2.  Accusative  and  Ablative. — Dignor  and  transitive  verbs  of  Plenty 
and  Want  take  the  Accusative  with  the  Ablative : 

Me  dignor  honorc,  /  deem  myself  worthy  of  honor.  Virg.  Armis  navea 
onerat,  He  loads  the  ships  with  arms.  Sail.  Oculis  se  privat.  He  deprives 
himself  of  his  eyes.  Cic.     See  371.  2. 

1)  Transitive  verbs  of  Plenty  and  Want  signify  to  fill,  furnish  with,  deprive  o^ 
etc:  officio,  cumulo,  eomplco,  impleo,  imbuo,  insiruo,  onero,  orno,  etc. — orlo, 
prlvo,  spolio,  etc.    Dignor  in  the  best  prose  admits  only  the  Abl. 

2)  For  the  Accusative  and  Genitive  with  some  of  these  verbs,  see  410.  7.  2). 

3.  Dative  and  Ablative. —  Opus  est  and  Usus  est  admit  the  Dative  of 
the  person  with  the  Ablative  of  the  thing.     See  examples. 


ABLATIVE   IN    SPECIAL   CONSTKUCTIONS.  193 

1)  The  Ablative  is  sometimes  a  Perfect  Participle,  or,  with  opus  est,  a 
Noun  and  Participle : 

Consulto  6pus  est,  There  is  need  of  deliberation.  SalL  Opus  fuit  llirtio  con- 
vento.  There  was  need  of  meeting  Ilirtius.  Cic. 

2)  With  opus  est,  rarely  with  mv^  est,  the  thing  needed  may  be  denoted — 

(1)  By  the  Nominative,  rarely  by  the  Genitive  or  Accusative : 

Dux  nobis  6pus  est.  We  need  a  leader^  or  a  leader  is  necessary  (a  necessity) 
for  lis.  Cic.  Temporis  dpus  est,  T/iere  is  7ieed  o/thne.  Liv.  Opus  est  cibum,  There 
is  need  of  food.  Plaut 

(2)  By  an  Infinitive,  a  Clause,  or  a  Supine: 

Opus  est  te  valGre,  It  is  necessary  that  you  be  well.  Cic  Opus  est  ut  lavem,  It 
is  necessary  for  me  to  bathe  (that  I  bathe).  Plaut.  Dictu  est  opus,  It  is  necessary 
to  he  told.  Tor. 

4.  Other  Constructions  also  occur.    Thus 

1)  C7or,  fruor.,  fungor^  potior,  and  tescor,  originally  transitive,  are  occasionally 
eo  used  in  classic  authors.  Their  participle  in  dus  is  passive  in  sense.  Utor  admits 
two  ablatives  of  the  same  person  or  thing: 

Mo  utCtur  patre,  lie  xcillfind  (use)  me  a  father.  Tcr. 

2)  Fldo,  confulo,  and  innltor  admit  the  Dative,  rarely  the  Abl.  with  in, 
Virtuti  conf  Idere,  to  confide  in  tirtue.  Cic.    See  8S5. 1. 

8)  Dignus  and  indignus  admit  the  Oen.,  fretus  the  Dat,  nltor  and  innltor  the 
Ace.  or  Abl.  with  Prep.,  and  some  verbs  of  Want  the  Abl.  with  Prop. 

Dlpnus  s\x\vit\9,  tcorthy  of  safety.  Plaut.  Eci  frCtus,  relying  upon  the  thing. 
Liv.    Yacare  ab  6pc're,  to  be  free  from  work.  Caes. 

4)  Genitive.— Far  the  genitive  with  pMior,  see  409.  3.  For  the  gcniiive  with 
verbs  and  adjectives  of  Plenty  and  Want,  sec  409. 1,  410.  7,  and  899.  2.  2). 


n.  Ablative  of  Place. 

420.  This  Ablative  designates 

I.  The  PLACE  IN  WHICH  anything  is  or  is  done : 

II.  The  PLACE  FROM  WHICH  anything  proceeds; — in- 
cluding Source  and  /Separation. 

ETJLE  XXVI.-Ablative  of  Place. 

421.  I.  The  PLACE  in  which  and  the  place  from 
WHICH  are  generally  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  a 
Preposition.     But 

II.  Names  of  Towns  omit  the  Preposition,  and  in 
the  Singular  of  the  First  and  Second  declensions  desig- 
nate the  PLACE  IN  WHICH  by  the  Locative,  (45,  2) : 


194  ABLATIVE   OF  PLACE. 

I.  Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Hannibal  was  in  Italy.  Nep.  In  noetria 
castris,  in  our  camp.  Caes.  In  Appia  via,  on  the  Appian  way.  Cic.  Ab 
urbe  prof  iciscitur,  He  departs  from  the  city.  Caes.  Ex  Africa,  from  Afri- 
ca. Liv. 

II.  Athgnis  fuit,  He  was  at  Athens.  Cic.  Babylone  mortuus  est,  He 
died  at  Babylon.  Cic.  Fugit  Corintho,  He  fled  from  Corinth.  Cic.  Romae 
fuit,  He  was  at  Rome.  Cic.     See  48,  4. 

422.  Names  of  Places  i^^ot  Towns  sometimes  omit 
the  preposition : 

1.  The  Ablative  of  place  in  which,  sometimes  omits  the 
preposition : 

1)  Generally  the  Ablatives — loco,  locis,  parte,  pariibus,  dextra,  laeva, 
sinistra,  terra,  marl,  and  other  Ablatives  when  qualified  by  totits  : 

Aliquid  loco  ponere,  to  put  anything  in  its  place.  Cic.  Terra  mSrique, 
on  land  and  sea.  Liv.    Tota  Graecia,  in  all  Greece.  Nep. 

2)  Sometimes  other  Ablatives,  especially  when  qualified  by  adjectives : 
Hoc  libro,  in  this  booh.  Cic. 

In  poetry  the  preposition  is  often  omitted  even  when  the  ablative  has  no  modifier: 
Silvis  agrisque,  in  the  forests  and  fields.  Ov. 

2.  The  Ablative  of  place  feom  which  sometimes  omits  the 
preposition,  especially  in  poetry : 

Cadere  nubibus,  to  fall  from  the  clouds.  Virg.  Labi  equo,  to 
fall  from  a  horse.  Hor. 

423.  Names  of  Towns  differ  in  their  construction 
from  other  names  of  places, 

I.  Generally  in  simply  omitting  the  preposition.     But 

II.  In  the  Singular  of  the  First  and  Second  declensions 
they  designate  the  place  in  which  by  the  Locative.  See 
examples  under  the  Rule. 

1.  Preposition  Retained. — The  preposition  is  sometimes  retained, 
especially  for  emphasis  or  contrast : 

Ab  Ardea  Romam  venerunt,  They  came  from  Ardea  to  Rome.  Liv.  So 
also  when  the  vicinity  rather  than  the  town  itself  is  meant :  Discessit  a  Brun- 
disio,  He  departed  from  Brundisium,  i.  e.,  from  the  port.  Caes.  Apud  Man- 
tingam,  near  Mantinea.  Cic.    Ad  TrSbiam,  at  or  near  the  Trebia.  Liv. 

2.  Locative. — ^The  original  Locative,  denoting  the  place  in  which, 
was  blended  with  the  Ablative,  except  in  the  Singular  of  the  First  and 
Second  Declensions,  where  it  still  remains  distinct,  though  with  the  same 
form  as  the  Genitive.  A  few  traces  of  it  also  remain  in  the  Singular  of 
the  Third  Declension,  where  it  ends  in  i.     See  62,  IV.  3. 

3.  Other  Constructions  for  the  Genitive  also  occur : 


ABLATIVE  OF  PLACE,  SOURCE,  SEPARATION.      195 

1)  Ablative  by  Attraction : 

In  monte  Alb3no  LSviuioque,  on  the  Alban  mount  and  at  Laviniitm,  Liv. 

2)  Ablative  without  Attraction,  generally  with  a  preposition  : 

In  ipsa  Alexandria,  in  Alexandria  itself.  Cic.  Longa  Alba,  at  Alba 
Longa.  Virg. 

This  is  the  regular  construction  when  the  noun  takes  an  adjective  or  adjective 
pronoun,  but  the  Locative  ddmi  (424,  2)  admits  a^  possessive  or  dlienus : 
DOmi,  suae,  at  his  home.  Cic. 

3)  With  an  Appellative— wrft*,  02'>pidumr—i\iQ  name  of  the  town  is  in  the 
Loc.  or  Abl.,  but  the  appellative  itself  is  in  the  Abl.,  generally  with  a  Prep. : 

In  oppldo  Antiochlae,  in  the  city  of  Antioch.  Cic.  In  oppldo  Citio,  in 
the  town  Citium.  Nep.  Albae,  in  urbe  opportuna,  at  Alba^  a  convenient 
city.  Cic. 

424.  Like  Names  of  Towns  are  used 

1.  Many  names  of  Islands : 

Vixit  Cypri,  He  livedin  Cyprus.  Nep.  Delo  pr5f  Iciscitur,  He  proceeds 
from  Delos,  Cic. 

2.  DSmus,  rus,  and  the  Locatives  humi,  militiae,  and  belli : 

Ruri  SgSre  vltam,  to  spend  life  in  the  country.  Liv.  Domi  mllitiaeque, 
at  home  and  in  the  field.  Cic.     Dome  profugit,  He  fled  from  home.  Cic. 

3.  The  Locative  of  other  nouns  also  occurs : 

1)  By  Attraction  after  names  of  towns  : 

E5mae  Niimidiaeque,  at  Borne  and  in  Numidia.  Sail. 

2)  Without  Attraction  in  a  few  proper  names,  and  rarely  also  the  Locar 
lives  arenae^fod^  terrae,  vlclniae: 

D5mum  Cliers(^nesi  h^buit,  He  had  a  house  in  the  Chersonesus.  Nep. 
Tnmcum  rcllquit  arenae,  He  left  the  body  in  the  sand.  Virg. 

ETTLE  XXVIL— Ablative  of  Source  and  Separation. 

425.  Source  and  Separation  are  denoted  by  the 
Ablative,  generally  with  a  preposition  : 

Source. — Hoc  audivi  do  pSrente  meo,  /  heard  this  from  my  father. 
Cic.  Oriundi  ab  S^binis,  descended  from  the  Sabines.  Liv.  StStua  ex  aere 
tactai,  a  statue  made  of  brome.  Cic.     Jove  n&tus,  son  of  Jupiter.  Cic. 

Separation. — Caedem  a  vobis  depello,  I  ward  oj^  slaughter  from  you. 
Cic.  Hunc  a  tuis  aris  arcebis,  You  will  keep  this  one  from  your  altars. 
Cic.    Expulsus  est  patria,  He  was  banished  from  his  country.  Cic. 

1.  The  Ablative  of  Souece  designates  that  from  which  any- 
thing is  derived,  including  parentage,  material,  etc. 

2.  The  Ablative  of  Skpaeation  designates  tliat  from  which 
anything  is  separated,  or  of  which  it  is  deprived,  and  is  used ; 


196  ABLATIVE   OF   SOURCE,   SEPAKATION,    TIME. 

1)  With  Intransitive  verbs  signifying,  to  abstain  from,  be  distant  fronhy 
etc. 

2)  In  connection  with  the  Accusative  after  transitive  verbs  signifying, 
to  hold  from,  separate  from,  free  from,  and  the  like  :  arceo,  abstf.ieo,  deterrtoy 
ejicio,  excludo,  exsolvo,  llhero,  pello,  prohibeo,  rerrwveo,  solvo,  etc. : 

3)  A  few  verbs  of  separation  admit  the  Dative:  alieno,  furor,  etc.  See 
385.  4. 

3.  Preposition  Omitted. — This  generally  occurs 

1)  With  Perfect  Participles  denoting  parentage  or  birth — genUits,  natus, 
ortus,  etc. : 

Jove  natus,  son  of  Jupiter.  Cic. 

2)  With  Verbs  of  Freeing,  except  llbero,  which  is  used  both  with  and 
without  a  preposition  : 

Somno  solvi,  to  be  released  from  sleep.  Cic.  But  in  the  sense  of  acquitting 
these  verbs  admit  the  genitive  (410.  7)  :  Aliquem  culpae  libSrare,  to  free  one 
from  blame,  i.  e.,  acquit  him.  Liv. 

3)  With  Mbveo  before  the  ablatives — loco,  sendtu  and  trQ>u  : 
Signura  movere  loco,  to  move  the  standard  from  the  place.  Cic. 

4)  The  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted  with  other  words,  especially  in 
poetry. 

III.    Ablative    op  Time. 

RULE  XXVIII.-Time. 

426.  The  Time  of  an  Action  is  denoted  by  the  Ab- 
lative : 

Octogesimo  anno  est  mortuus,  He  died  in  his  eightieth  year.  Cic.  Vere 
convenere,  Thei/  assembled  in  the  spring.  Liv.  Natali  die  sue,  on  his  birth- 
day.  Nep.    Hieme  et  aestate,  in  winter  and  summer.  Cic. 

1.  Designations  of  Time. — Any  word,  so  used  as  to  involve  the  time  of 
an  action  or  event,  may  be  put  in  the  ablative :  bello,  in  the  time  of  war ; 
pugna,  in  the  time  of  battle ;  ludis,  at  the  time  of  the  games ;  memoria,  in 
memory,  i.  e.,  in  the  time  of  one's  recollection. 

2.  The  Ablative  with  In  is  used  to  denote 

1)  The  circumstances  of  the  time,  rather  than  time  itself: 
In  tali  tempore,  under  such  circumstances.  Liv. 

2)  The  time  in  or  within  which  anything  is  done : 
In  diebus  proxirais  decem,  in  the  next  ten  days.  Sail. 

(1)  This  is  used  especially  after  numeral  adverbs  and  in  dosisnating  the  periods 
of  life :  Ms  in  die^  twice  in  the  day;  in  pueritia,  in  boyhood. 

(2)  In  a  kindred  sense  occur  also  the  AbL  with  de  and  the  Accus.  with  inter  or 
intra :  De  media  nocte,  in  the  middle  of  the  night.  Caes.  Inter  annos  quattuordo- 
cim,  in  {yiMhm)  fourteen  years.  Oaes. 

(3)  The  Ablative  with  or  without  in  sometimes  denotes  the  time  within  which 
or  after  which:  paucis  diebus,  within  (or  after)  a  few  days. 


CIIAKACTERISTIC.  197 

427.  Accusative  or  Ablative. — The  time  since  an  ac- 
tion or  event  is  denoted  by  Abhinc  or  Ante  with  the  Ac- 
cusative or  Ablative,  and  the  time  between  two  events, 
by  Aiite  or  Post  with  the  Accusative  or  Ablative  : 

Abhinc  annos  trfecentos  fuit,  lie  lived  (was)  three  hundred  years  since.  Cic. 
Abhinc  annis  ({naXinov,  four  years  since.  Cic.  HSmgrus  annis  multis  fuit  ante 
Ivomulum,  Homer  lived  many  years  before  Romulus.  Cic,  Paucis  ante  diebus, 
a  few  days  before.  Cic.    Post  dies  paucos  venit,  lie  came  after  a  few  days.  Liv. 

1.  ExPLANATiox. — (1)  The  Accusative  with  abhinc  is  explained  as  Dura- 
tion of  Time  (378),  with  ante  and  post  as  dependent  upon  those  prepositions. 
(2)  The  Ablative  in  both  cases  is  explained  as  the  Ablative  of  Difference  (418). 

With  the  Abl.  ante  and  post  are  used  adverbially  unless  an  Accus.  \&  expressed 
after  them,  Paucis  his  (illis)  diebus,  means  in  these  (those) /ew  days. 

2.  Numerals  with  Ante  and  Post. — These  may  be  either  cardinal  or 
ordinal.  Thus  :  five  years  after  =  quinqiie  annis  post,  or  quinto  anno  post  ; 
or  post  quinque  annos,  or  post  quintum  annum  ;  or  with  post  between  the 
numeral  and  the  noun,  quinque  post  annis,  etc. 

3.  QuAM  WITH  Ante  and  Post. — Quam  may  follow  ante  and  post,  may 
be  united  with  them,  or  may  even  be  used  £or postguam  : 

Quartum  post  annum  quam  r6di6rat,  four  years  after  he  had  returned, 
Nep,  Kono  anno  postquam,  nine  years  after.  Nep.  Sexto  anno  quam  6rat 
expulsus,  six  years  after  he  had  been  banished.  Nep. 

4.  The  Ablative  of  the  Relative  or  QnuM  may  be  used  for  post qtiam: 
Quitriduo,  quo  occisus  est,  four  days  after  he  ivas  killed.  Cic. 

IV.  Ablative  of  Characteristic. 

RULE  XXIX.— Characteristic. 

428.  Tlie  Ablative  with  an  adjective  may  be  used 
to  cliaractcrize  a  person  or  thing : 

Summa  virtute  adolcseens,  a  youth  of  the  highest  virtue.  Caes.  C2ti- 
lina  ingSnio  millo  fuit,  Catiline  was  a  man  of  a  bad  spirit.  Sail. 

1.  AnLATTVE  OF  CnARACTEUISTIC  IS  USCd 

1)  With  Substantives  as  in  the  first  example, 

2)  In  the  Predicate  with  sum,  and  the  other  verbs  which  admit  a  Predi- 
cate Genitive  (403)  as  in  the  second  example. 

2.  The  Ablative  with  a  Genitive  instead  of  the  ablative  with  an  adjec- 
tive is  sometimes  used : 

Uri  sunt  spfecie  tauri,  Th^  urus  is  of  the  appearance  of  a  bull.  Caes. 

3.  Genitive  of  Charactekistic, — See  3'J6.  IV. 

4.  Genitive  and  Ablative  Distinguished. — The  Genitive  generally  ex- 
presses permanent  and  essential  qualities ;  the  Ablative  is  not  limited  to  any 
particular  kind  of  qualities. 


198     ABLATIVE  OF  SPECIFICATION.     ABLATIVE  ABSOLUTE. 

V.   Ablative  of  Specification. 
RULE  XXX.— Specification. 

429.  The  Ablative  may  be  used  witli  a  word  to  de- 
fine its  application : 

Aggsilaus  nomine,  non  potestate  fuit  rex,  Agesilaus  was  king  in  name^ 
not  in  power.  Nep.  Claudus  altSro  pede,  lame  in  one  foot.  Nep.  Moribus 
similes,  similar  in  character.  Cic. 

1.  Force  op  Ablative. — This  shows  in  what  respect  or  particular  any- 
thing is  true  :  thus,  king  (in  what  respect  ?)  in  name :  similar  (in  what  re- 
spect ?)  in  character. 

2.  Accusative  of  Specification.    See  380. 

VI.  Ablative  Absolute. 

430.  A  noun  and  a  participle,  a  noun  and  an  adjective, 
or  two  nouns  may  be  grammatically  independent  of  (ab- 
solved from)  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  and  yet  may  express 
various  adverbial  modifications  of  the  predicate.  When 
so  used  they  are  said  to  be  in  the  case  Absolute. 

RULE  XXXL-Ablative  Absolute. 

431.  The  Ablative  is  used  as  the  Case  Absolute: 

Servio  regnante  vTguerunt,  Theg  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Servius 
(Servius  reigning).  Cic.  Regibus  exactis,  consules  creati  sunt.  After  the 
banishment  of  the  kings,  consuls  were  appointed.  Liv.  Sereno  coelo,  when 
the  sky  is  clear.  Sen.     Caninio  consule,  in  the  consulship  of  Caninius.  Cic. 

1.  Use. — The  Ablative  Absolute  is  much  more  common  than  the  Eng- 
lish Nominative  Absolute,  and  expresses  a  great  variety  of  relations, — time, 
cause,  reason,  means,  condition,  concession,  etc. 

2.  How  Rendered. — This  ablative  is  generally  best  rendered  (1)  by 
a  Clause  with — when,  while,  for,  since,  if,  though,  etc.,  (2)  by  a  NounYiiih 
a  Preposition, — in,  during,  after,  by,  from,  through,  etc.,  or  (3)  by  an  Ac 
five  Participle  with  its  Object : 

Servio  regnante,  while  Servius  reigned,  or  in  the  reign  of  Servius.  Cic 
RSligione  neglecta,  hecavse  religion  was  neglected.  Liv.  Perditis  rebus  omni- 
bus, tamen,  etc.,  Though  all  things  are  lost,  still,  etc.  Cic.  Equitatu  praemia- 
60,  subsfequebatur,  Having  sent  forward  his  cavalry,  he  followed.  Caes. 

3.  A  Connestive  sometimes  accompanies  the  Ablative : 

Nisi  munitis  castris,  unless  the  camp  should  be  fortified.  Caes. 


CASES   WITH   PREPOSITIONS.  199 

4.  An  Infinitive  or  Clause  may  be  In  the  AbL  Absolute  with  a  neuter  parti- 

dple  or  adjective : 

Audlto  Durlum  movlsso,  pergit,  Uaving  heard  that  Darius  had  withdraxcn 

(that  Darius  had,  etc.,  having  been  heard),  he  advanced.  Curt    Multi,  inccrto  quid 

vlturent,  interlCrunt,  Many,  uncertain  what  they  should  avoid  (what  they,  etc, 

being  uncertain),  perished.  Liv. 

6.  A  Pakticiple  or  Adjective  may  stand  alone  in  the  AbL  Absolute: 

Multum  certato,  pervlcit,  He  conquered  after  a  hard  struggle  (it  having  b«ea) 

much  contested).  Tac. 

6.  QuiSQUE  in  the  Nominative  may  accompany  the  Abl.  Absolute : 
Multis  sibi  quisque  petentibus,  while  many  sought,  each/or  himself.  SalL 

VLL  Ablativb  with  Prepositions.     See  432  and  434. 


SECTION  vm. 

CASES    WITH   PREPOSITIONS. 

ETJLE  XXXn.— Cases  with  Prepositions. 

432.  The  Accusative  and  Ablative  may  be  used 
with  Prepositions ; 

Ad  Sralcum  scripsi,  /  have  written  to  a  friend.  Cic.  In  curiam,  into 
the  senate  house.  Liv.  In  ItSlia,  in  Italy.  Nep.  Pro  castris,  be/ore  the 
camp. 

433.  The  AccusATiTE  is  used  with 

Ad,  adversus  (adversum),  ante,  apud,  circa,  circum,  circiter,  cis,  citra, 
contra,  erga,  extra,  infra,  inter,  intra,  juxta,  ob,  penes,  per,  pone,  post, 
praeter,  prope,  propter,  secundum,  supra,  trans,  ultra,  versus : 

Ad  urbem,  to  the  city.  Cic.  Adversus  decs,  toward  the  gods.  Cic.  Ante 
iQcem,  before  light.  Cic.  Apud  concilium,  in  the  presence  of  the  council. 
Cic.  Circa  forum,  around  the  forum.  Cic.  Citra  flumen,  on  this  side  of 
the  river.  Cic.  Contra  naturam,  contrary  to  nature.  Cic.  Intra  muros, 
within  the  walls.  Cic.  Post  castra,  bthind  the  camp.  Caes.  Secundum 
naturam,  according  to  nature.  Cic.     Trans  Alpes,  across  the  Alps.  Cic. 

1.  Like  PrI'tpe,  the  derivatives  pn!iptor  and  prox'imus  take  the  Accus.  depend- 
ent perhaps  upon  ad  understood.     Exadtersus  (um)  also  occurs  with  the  Accus. : 

Pr6pior  montem,  nearer  to  the  mountain.  Sail.  Proximus  mure,  nearest  tf 
the  sea.  Caes.    See  also  437,  and  for  compounds,  871.  4.  and  374.  6. 

2.  Versus  (um)  and  iisgue  as  adverbs  often  accompany  propositions,  especially 
ud  and  in:  Ad  Alpes  versus,  towards  the  Alps. 

434.  The  Ablative  is  used  with 

A  or  ab  (abs),        absque,        coram,        cum,        de, 
e  or  ex,  prae,  pro,  sine,        tSnus  • 


200  CASES   WITH    PREPOSITIONS. 

Ab  urbe,  from  the  city.  Caes.  Coram  convcntu,  in  the  presence  of  the 
assembly.  Nep.  Cum  Antiocho,  with  Antiochus.  Cic.  De  foro,  from  the 
forum.  Cic.    Ex  Asia,  from  Asia. /Nep.    Sine  corde,  without  a  heart.  Cic. 

1.  Many  verbs  compounded  with  a5,  de,  cz,  or  super,  admit  the  Ablative 
dependent  upon  the  preposition  : 

Abire  mSgistratu,  to  retire  from  office.  Tac.  Pugna  excedunt,  They  retire 
from  the  battle.  Caes. 

Sometimes  the  Prep,  is  repeated,  or  one  of  kindred  meaning  is  used  : 

De  vita  decedcre,  to  depart  from  life.  Cic.  Dcccdere  ex  Asia,  to  depart  from 
Asia.  Cic. 

2.  The  Ablative  with  or  without  De  is  sometimes  used  with  Facio,  Fio, 
or  Sum,  as  follows  : 

Quid  hoc  homine  facias,  What  are  you  to  do  with  this  man  t  Cic,  Quid  te  {or 
de  te)  futurum  est,  What  will  become  of  you  t  Cic. 

The  Dative  occurs  in  nearly  the  same  sense  : 

Quid  huic  homini  facias,  What  are  you  to  do  with  (or  to)  this  man  t  Cic. 

8.  A,  ab,  abs,  e,  ex. — A  and  e  are  used  only  before  consonants,  ab  and  eao  either 
before  vowels  or  consonants.    Abs  is  antiquated,  except  before  te. 

4.  Timis  follows  its  case : 
Collo  tenus,  up  to  the  neck.  Ov. 

5.  Cum  with  the  Abl.  of  a  Pers.  Pronoun  is  appended  to  it :  mecum,  tecum,  etc., 
generally  also  with  a  relative :  gudcum,  qulbuscum,. 

435.  The  Accusative  or  Ablative  is  used  with 

In,  sub,  subter,  super: 
In  Asiam  profugit,  He  fled  into  Asia.  Cic.  Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Han- 
nibal was  in  Italy.  Nep.  Sub  moniQin,  toward  the  mountain.  Caes.  Sub 
monte,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  Liv.  Subter  togam,  under  the  toga.  Liv. 
Subter  testudine,  under  a  tortoise  or  shed.  Virg.  Super  Numidiam,  beyond 
Numidia.  Sail.    Hac  super  re  scribam,  I  will  write  on  this  subject.  Cic. 

1.  In  QMdi  Sub  take  the  Accusative  in  answer  to  the  question  whither? 
the  Ablative  in  answer  to  where?  In  Asiam  (whither?),  into  Asia;  In  Italia 
(where  ?),  in  Italy. 

2.  Suiter  and  Super  generally  take  the  Accusative,  but  s/upeT  with  the 
force  oi— concerning,  of,  on  (of  a  subject  of  discourse),  takes  the  Ablative ; 
see  examples. 

436.  Prepositions  as  Adverbs. — The  prepositions  were  origmally 
adverbs,  and  many  of  them  are  sometimes  so  used  in  classical  authors. 

437.  Adverbs  as  Prepositions.— Conversely  several  adverbs  are 
sometimes  used  as  prepositions  with  an  oblique  case,  though  in  most  in- 
Btances  a  preposition  could  readily  be  supplied.     Such  are 

1.  With  Accusative :  propius,  prorlme,  prldie,  postridie,  usque,  desuper  : 
Propius  pSnculum  (ad),  nearer  to  danger.  Liv.    Pridie  Idus  (ante),  the  day 

before  the  Ides.  Cic.    Usque  pedes  (ad),  even  to  the  feet.  Curt. 

2.  With  Ablative  :  pdlam,  procul,  simul  (poetic) : 

Palam  populo,  in  the  presence  of  the  people.  Liv.  Procul  castris,  at  a  distance 
from  the  camp.  Tac.    Simul  his,  icith  these.  Ilor, 

8.  With  Accusative  or  Ablative :  clam,  inmper  : 

Clam  patrem,  without  the  father's  knowledge.  Plant  Clam  vobis,  without  your 
knotol&ilQo  Ca<is. 


CHAPTEE    III. 

SYNTAX  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

RULE  XXXm— Agreement  of  Adjectives. 

438.  An  Adjective  agrees  with  its  Noun  in  gender, 
NUMBER,  and  CASE : 

Fortflna  caeca  est,  Fortune  is  blind.  Cic.  Vfirae  amicltiae,  truefHend- 
nhips.  Cic.     MSgister  optlmus,  the  best  teacher.  Cic. 

1.  This  Rule  includes  Adjectives,  Adjective  Pronouns,  and  Participles. 

2.  Attributive  and  Predicate  Adjectives. — An  adjective  is  called 
attributive,  unless  it  unites  with  the  verb  (generally  sum),  to  form  the 
predicate  ;  it  is  then  called  {x  predicate-adjective :  as  caeca  est,  above. 

3.  Agreement  with  Clause,  etc. — An  adjective  may  agree  with  any 
word  or  words  used  substantively,  as  o, pronoun,  clause,  infinitive,  etc. : 

Quis  clarior,  IFAo  is  more  illustrious?  Cic.  Certum  est  libSros  amari. 
It  is  certairc  that  children  are  loved.  Quint.     See  42,  III. 

An  adjective  agreeing  with  a  clause  Is  sometimes  plural,  as  in  Greek. 

4.  Neuter  with  Masculine.— Sometimes  the  Predicate  Adjective  is 
neuter,  when  the  subject  is  Masc.  or  Fern. : 

Mors  est  extremum,  Death  is  the  last  (thing).  Cic. 

5.  Neuter  with  Genitive. — A  neuter  adjective  with  a  genitive  is  often 
used  instead  of  an  adjective  with  its  noun  : 

Multum  6p6rae  (for  multa  opera),  much  service  (much  of  service).  Cic. 
Id  tempcJris,  that  time.  Cic.     Vana  rerum  (for  vdnae  res),  vain  things   Hon 

6.  Construction  according  to  Sense.— Sometimes  the  adjective  or  par- 
ticiple conforms  to  the  real  meaning  of  its  noun,  without  regard  to  gran> 
matical  gender  or  number : 

Pars  certare  parati,  a  part  (some),  prepared  to  contend.  Virsj.  Nobis 
(for  me,  446,  2),  praescnte,  we  (1)  beinq present.  Plant.  Demosthenes  cum 
ceteris  6rant  expulsi,  Demostlienes  with  the  others  had  been  banished.  Nep. 

7.  Agreement  with  Predicate  Noun  or  Appositive. — See  4G2. 

8.  Agreement  with  one  Noun  for  Another. — When  a  noun  governa 
another  in  the  Genitive,  an  adjective  belonging  in  sense  to  one  of  the  two 
nouns,  sometimes  agrees  with  the  other: 

Majora  (for  majbrum)  Initia  rCrum,  the  beginnings  of  greater  thingn. 
Liv.     Cursi.s  justi  {Justus)  amnis,  the  regular  course  of  the  river.  Liv. 


202  AGREEMENT    OF    ADJECTIVES. 

439.  With  two  or  more  Nouns. — An  adjective  or 
participle,  belonging  to  two  or  more  nouns,  may  agree 
with  them  all  conjointly,  or  may  agree  with  one  and  be 
understood  with  the  others : 

Castor  et  Pollux  visi  sunt,  Castor  and  Pollux  were  seen.  Cic.  TemS- 
ritas  ignoratioque  vitiosa  est,  Rashness  and  ignorance  are  bad.  Cic. 

1.  The  Attributive  Adjective  generally  agrees  with  the  nearest  noun: 
Agri  omnes  et  maria,  all  lands  and  seas.  Cic. 

2.  Different  Genders. — When  the  nouns  are  of  different  genders, 
they  may  denote 

1)  Persons :  then  the  adjective  or  participle  agreeing  with  them  con- 
jointly is  masculine  :  Pater  et  mater  mortui  sunt.  Father  and  mother  are 
dead.  Ter. 

2)  Persons  and  Things  :  then  the  adjective  generally  takes  the  gender 
of  the  person :  Rex  regiaque  classis  profecti  sunt,  TJie  king  and  the  royal 
fleet  set  out.  Liv. 

3)  Things  :  then  the  adjective  is  generally  neuter :  Honores,  victoriae 
fortulta  sunt,  Honors  and  victories  are  accidental  (things).  Cic. 

3.  Neuter  with  Masculine  or  Feminine. — With  masculine  or  feminine 
nouns  denoting  inanimate  objects,  the  adjective  is  often  neuter: 

LSbor  et  dolor  sunt  finitima,  Labor  and  pain  are  kindred  (things).  Cic. 
Nox  atque  praeda  hostes  remorata  sunt,  Night  and  plunder  detained  the 
enemy.  Sail. 

4.  Two  OR  more  Adjectives. — Two  or  more  adjectives  in  the  singular 
may  belong  to  a  plural  noun  : 

Prima  et  vicesima  ISgiones,  the  first  and  the  twentieth  legions,  Tac. 
So  in  proper  names :  Caaeus  et  Publius  Sclpiones,  Gnaeus  and  Publius  Seipio. 
Cic. 

440.  Use  of  Adjectives. — The  Adjective  in  Latin 
coiTesponds  in  its  general  use  to  the  Adjective  in  English. 

1.  An  adjective  may  qualify  the  complex  idea  formed  by  a  noun  and  an  adjec- 
tive :  aes  dlienum  {/rande,  a  great  debt.  Here  grande  qualifies  not  aes  alone,  but 
aes  alienum.    In  such  cases  no  connective  is  used  between  the  adjectives. 

But  the  Latin  uses  the  conjunction  after  multi  even  where  the  English  omits 
it:  multae  et  magnae  tempestdtes,  many  great  emergencies. 

441.  Adjectives  are  often  used  substantively;  docti, 
the  learned ;  multi^  many  persons  ;  7nulta^  many  things. 

1.  In  the  Plural,  Masculine  Adjectives  often  designate  persons,  and 
Neuter  Adjectives  things: /or^e^,  the  brave;  dlvites,  the  rich;  pauperes, 
the  poor ;  multi,  many :  pauci,  few ;  omnes,  all ;  mei,  my  friends  ;  utUia, 
useful  things ;  mea,  nostra,  my,  our  things ;  omnia,  all  things ;  haec,  ilia, 
these,  those  things. 

2.  In  the  Singular,  Adjectives  are  occasionally  used  substantively, 
especially  in  the  Neuter  with  an  abstract  sense :  doctus,  a  learned  man ; 


USE    OF    ADJECTIVES.  203 

virum,  a  true  thing,  the  truth ;  ni?dl  Hnceri,  nothing  of  sincerity,  nothing 
sincere. 

3.  Noun  Understood. — Many  adjectives  become  substantives,  by  the 
omission  of  their  nouns:  patria  (terra),  native  country;  dextra  (manusj, 
right  hand  ;  /era  (bestia),  wild  beast ;  hiberna  (castra),  winter-quarters;. 

4.  With  Res.  —Adjectives  with  res  are  used  with  great  freedom :  rts 
adversae,  adversity;  res  secundae,  prosperity;  respublica,  republic. 

5.  From  Proper  Names. — Adjectives  from  proper  names  are  often 
equivalent  to  the  EngHsh  objective  with  of:  pugna  MarSthonia,  the  battle 
of  Maratlion  ;  Diana  EphSsia,  Diana  of  Ephesus  ;  Hercules  X6n6phontius, 
the  Hercules  of  Xenophon. 

<).  Designating  a  Part. — A  few  adjectives  sometimes  designate  a  par- 
ticular part  of  an  object :  prirmis,  niedius,  uUimus,  extremus,  postremtis,  inti- 
mus,  summtis,  infimus,  imus,  supremus,  reliqut^,  cetera,  etc. :  prima  nox, 
the  first  part  of  the  night ;  summus  mons,  the  highest  part  of  the  mountain. 

In  Livj  and  late  writers,  the  neater  of  these  adjectives  with  a  genitive  some- 
tiroes  occurs: 

Ad  ultlmam  inbpi&e,/or  ad  ultimam  in6piam,  to  extreme  destitution.  Liv. 

442.  Equivalent  to  a  Clause. — Adjectives,  like 
nouns  in  apposition,  are  sometimes  equivalent  to  clauses : 

Nemo  saltat  sobrius,  iVb  one  dances  when  he  is  sober,  or  when  sober.  Cic. 
Hortensium  vivum  Smavi,  /  loved  Hortensitis,  while  he  was  alive.  Cic. 
Hdmo  nunquam  sobrius,  a  man,  who  is  never  sober.  Cic. 

1.  Prior,  primus,  ultimus,  postremus,  are  often  best  rendered  by  a  rela- 
tive clause : 

Primus  morem  solvit,  I/e  was  the  first  who  broke  the  custom.  Liv. 

With  the  adverb  prlmum,  the  thought  would  bo,  Jtefrst  broke  the  ciistom,  and 
then  did  something  else. 

443.  IxsTEAD  OF  Adverbs.— Adjectives  are  sometimes  used 
where  our  idiom  employs  adverbs : 

SocrStes  vfinfinum  laetus  hansAi,  Soa'ates  cheerfully  drank  the  poison. 
Sen.  SfinStus  frequens  convenit.  The  senate  assembled  in  great  numbers. 
Cic.     Roscius  6rat  RSmae  fr6quens,  lioscim  was  frequently  at  Rome.  Cic. 

Adjectives  thus  used  are:  (1)  Those  expressive  oi  joy,  knowledge,  and  their  ojv 
posites:  laetus,  llbens,  invltus,  tristis,  sciens,  insciena,  prudens,  imprxidens,  etc. 
(2)  Nullus,  solus,  tot  us,  iinua;  prior,  primus,  prb^pior,  proxlmus,  etc.  (3)  In  the 
Poets  several  adjectives  of  time  and  place: 

D6me8ticu3  otior,  /idle  about  home.  Ilor.  Vespertlnus  pete  tectum,  At  even- 
ing seek  your  abode.  Hor.    See  Examples  above ;  also  a'JS.  4. 

444.  Comparison. — A  comparison  between  two  ob- 
jects requires  the  comparative  degree ;  between  more 
than  two,  the  superlative : 

Prior  hSrum,  the  former  of  these  {ivo).  Nep.     GallSrum  fortissimi,  tJie 
iraveet  of  the  Oauls.  Caes. 
10 


204  ADJECTIVES.       PRONOUNS. 

1.  With  the  force  op  Too  oe  Very. — The  comparative  sometimes  has 
the  force  of  too,  unusually,  somewhat,  and  the  superlative,  the  force  of 
vet'y :  doctior,  too  learned,  or  somewhat  learned ;  doctisshnus,  very  learned. 

2.  Comparative  after  Quam. — When  an  object  is  said  to  possess  one 
quality  in  a  higher  degree  than  another,  both  adjectives  are  put  in  the 
comparative ;  but  when  it  is  said  to  possess  one  quality  rather  than  an- 
other, both  are  in  the  positive,  the  former  with  magis  ov potius: 

Clarior  quam  gratior,  more  illustrious  than  pleasing.  Lir.  Disertus 
.magis  quam  sapiens,  fluent  rather  than  wise.  Cic. 

In  the  first  case  the  positive  is  sometimes  used  in  one  or  both  members ;  and  ia 
the  second  case  magis  is  sometimes  omitted,  and  occasionally  the  adjective  before 
quam  is  in  the  comparative. 

3.  Strengthening  Words.— Comparatives  and  Superlatives  are  often 
strengthened  by  a  Prep,  with  its  case,  ante,  prae,  praeter,  supra  (417.  2.  3), 
unus,  unus  omnium,  alone,  alone  of  all,  far,  by  far ;  Comparatives  also  by 
etiam,  even,  still ;  m,ulto,  much,  and  Superlatives  by  longe,  multo,  by  far, 
much,  quam,  quantus,  as  possible  : 

Multo  maxima  pars,  by  far  the  largest  part.  Cic.  Res  una  omninm  difficillima, 
a  thing  by  far  the  most  difficult  of  all.  Cic.  Quam  maximae  copiae,  forces  as  large 
as  possible.  Sail.    Q,via,nta  maxima,  vastitas,  the  greatest  possible  denastaiion.  Liv. 

4.  Comparison  in  Adverbs  has  the  same  force  as  in  adjectives: 
Quam  saepissime,  as  often  as  possible.  Cic.    Fortius  quam  f5licius,  wiiJi 

more  bravery  than  success.  Liv. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

SYNTAX    OF    PRONOUNS. 

RULE  XXXIV.— Agreement  of  Pronouns. 

445.  A  Pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  gen- 
dee,  NUMBER,  and  PERSON  t 

Animal  quod  sanguinem  hSbet,  an  animal  which  has  blood.  Cic.  Ego, 
qui  te  confirmo,  I  who  encourage  you.  Cic.  Vis  est  in  virtutibus  ;  eas  ex- 
cita,  There  is  strength  in  virtues,  arouse  them.  Cic. 

1.  Application  of  Rule.— This  rule  applies  to  all  Pronouns  when 
used  as  nouns.  Pronouns  used  as  adjectives  conform  to  the  rule  for  adjec- 
tives.   See  438. 

The  Antecedent  is  the  word  or  words  to  which  the  pronoun  refers,  and  whose 
place  it  supplies.  Thus,  in  the  examples  under  the  rule,  animal  is  the  antecedent 
otguod,  and  virliitllus  the  antecedent  of  eas. 


AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS.  205 

2.  Agreement  with  Personal  Pronoun. — When  the  antecedent  is 
a  Demonstrative  in  agreement  with  a  Personal  pronoun,  the  relative  agrees 
with  the  latter  : 

Tu  es  is  qui  me  ornasti,  You  are  the  one  who  commended  me.     Cic. 

3.  With  two  Antecedents. — When  a  relative  or  other  pronoun,  re- 
fers to  two  or  more  antecedents,  it  generally  agrees  with  them  conjointly, 
but  it  sometimes  agrees  with  the  nearest : 

PuSri  mulieresque,  qui,  boys  and  women,  who.  Caes.  Peccutum  ac 
culpa,  quae,  error  and  fault,  which.  Cic. 

1)  "With  antecedents  of  different  genders,  the  pronoun  conforms  In  gender  to  the 
rule  for  adjectives  (439.  2  and  8) ;  hence  pu^ri  mulieresque  qui,  above. 

2)  With  antecedents  of  different  persons,  the  pronoun  prefers  the  first  person  to 
the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third,  conforming  to  the  rule  for  verbs.    See  463. 1. 

4.  With  Predicate  Noun  or  Appositive. — A  pronoun  sometimes 
agrees  with  a  Predicate-Noun  or  an  Appositive  instead  of  the  antecedent : 

Animal  quem  (for  quod)  vocamus  hominom,  tlie  animal  which  we  call 
man.  Cic.  Thebae,  quod  {quae)  caput  est,  Thebes  which  is  the  capital. 
Liv.  Ea  (id)  erat  confessio,  That  (i.  e.,  the  action  referred  to)  was  a  con- 
fession. Liv.     Flumen  Rhenus,  qui,  l/ie  river  Rhine,  which.  Caes. 

In  the  last  example,  qui  agrees  with  the  ap7)ositive  Rhenus ;  in  the  other  exam- 
ples, the  pronouns  quem,  quod,  and  ea,  are  attracted  to  agree  with  their  predicate 
nouns  homlnem,  caput,  and  confessio. 

5.  Construction  according  to  Sense. — Sometimes  the  pronoun  is 
construed  according  to  the  real  meaning  of  the  antecedent,  without  regard 
to  grammatical  form ;  and  sometimes  it  refers  to  the  class  of  objects  to 
which  the  antecedent  belongs  : 

Equttatiis,  qui  viderunt,  the  cavalry  wJio  saw.  Caes.  Earum  rerum 
utrumque,  each  of  these  things.  Cic.  Democritum  omittamus  ;  Spud  istos ; 
let  tts  omit  Democrittcs  ;  with  sicch  (i.  e,,  as  he).  Cic. 

6.  Antecedent  Omitted. — The  antecedent  of  the  relative  is  often  omit- 
ted when  it  is  indefinite,  is  the  pronoun  is,  or  is  implied  in  a  possessive : 

Sunt  qui  censeant,  There  are  some  who  think.  Cic.  Terra  reddit  quod 
accepit,  The  earth  returns  what  it  has  received.  Cic.  Vcstra,  qui  cum  in- 
tc'grltjlte  vixistis,  hoc  interest,  This  interests  you  who  have  lived  with  in^ 
tegrity.  Cic.    Here  the  antecedent  is  vos,  implied  in  vestra. 

7.  Clause  as  Antecedent. — When  the  antecedent  is  a  sentence  or 
clause,  the  pronoun,  unless  attracted  (445.  4),  is  in  the  Neuter  Singular, 
but  the  relative  generally  adds  id  as  an  appositive  to  such  antecedent : 

Nos,  id  quod  debet,  patria  d61ectat.  Our  country  delights  us,  as  it  ought 
(lit.  that  which  it  owes).  Cic. 

8.  Relative  Attracted.— The  relative  is  sometimes  attracted  into  the 
ease  of  the  antecedent,  and  sometimes  agrees  with  the  antecedent  repeated : 

Jadlce  quo  (for  quem)  nosti,  the  judge  whom  you  know.  Hor.     Dies  in- 


206  PEBSONAL   AND   POSSESSIVE   PEONOUXS. 

stat,  quo  die,  The  day  is  at  hand,  on  which  day.  Caes.  Cumae,  qnam 
urbem  t^nebant,  Cumae,  which  city  they  held.  Liv. 

9.  Antecedent  Attracted. — In  Poetry,  rarely  in  prose,  the  antecedent 
is  sometimes  attracted  into  the  case  of  the  relative  ;  and  sometimes  incor. 
porated  in  the  relative  clause  in  the  same  case  as  the  relative  : 

Urbem  quam  statuo,  vestra  est,  The  city  which  I  am  building  is  youis. 
Virg.  MSlarum,  quas  2mor  curas  habet,  oblivisci  (for  maldrum  curdrvirh 
quas),  to  forget  the  wretched  cares  which  love  has.  Hor. 

I.  Personal  and  Possessive  Pronouns. 

446.  The  IS'oininative  of  Personal  Pronouns  is  used 
only  for  emphasis  or  contrast : 

Significamus,  quid  sentiamus.  We  show  what  we  think.  Cic.  Ego 
reges  ejeci,  vos  tyrannos  introducxtis,  I  have  banished  kings,  you  introduce 
tyrants.  Cic. 

1.  With  quldem  the  pronoun  is  usually  expressed,  and  then  the  third  person  is 
supplied  by  hie,  is,  ille,  which  are  then  often  redundant:  tu quldem,  you  indeed,  ille 
quldem,  he  indeed.     Quldem  adda  emphasis;  equldem  =  ego  quTdem. 

2.  Tbe  writer  sometimes  speaks  of  himself  in  the  plural,  using  nos  for  ego,  nos- 
ier for  meuA,  and  the  plural  verb  for  the  singular. 

8.  For  Nostrum  and  Vestrum,  see  396.  1. 

447.  Possessive  Pronouns,  when  not  emphatic,  are  sel- 
dom expressed,  if  they  can  be  supplied  from  the  context : 

Manus  ISva,  Wash  your  hands.  Cic.  Mihi  mea  vita  cSra  est,  My  life  is 
dear  to  me.  Plaut. 

For  Possessive  with  Genitive  in  the  sense  of  o\\ti,  see  897.  3. 

Heflexive  use  of  Pronouns. 

448.  Sui  and  Suus  have  a  reflexive  sense  {himself 
etc.) ;  sometimes  also  the  other  Personal  and  Possessive 
pronouns,  together  with  Is,  Hie,  and  Ipse : 

Se  diligit.  He  loves  himself.  Cic.  Sua  vi  movetur,  He  is  moved  by  his 
own  power.  Cic.  TAe  con&oloT,  I  console  myself.  Cic.  Persuadent  Tulingis 
titi  cum  iis  prSficiscantur,  They  persuade  the  Tulingi  to  depart  with  them, 
Caes. 

1.  Inter  nos,  inter  vos,  inter  se,  have  a  reciprocal  force,  each  other,  one  another, 
together;  but  instead  of  inter  se,  the  noun  may  be  repeated  in  an  oblique  case : 

Coll6quimur  inter  nos,  We  converse  together.  Cic.  Amant  inter  se.  They  lore 
one  another.  Cic.  Hdmines  hdminlbus  utiles  sunt,  Men  are  use/id  to  men,  i.  0.,  to 
eaeh  otb«r.  Oie 


REFLEXIVE  USE  OP  PRONOUNS.  207 

449.  Sui  and  Sims  generally  refer  to  the  Subject  of 
the  clause  in  which  they  stand  : 

Se  diligit,  He  loves  himself.  Cic.  Justitia  propter  s6se  cCIenda  est. 
Justice  should  be  cultivated /or  its  own  sake.  Cic.  Annulum  suum  d6dit, 
He  gave  his  ring.  Nep. 

1.  In  SuBOBUiNATB  CLAUSES  expressing  the  sentiment  of  the  principal 
subject,  Sui  and  Suns  generally  refer  to  that  subject : 

Sentit  2,nlmus  se  vi  sua  m5v6ri,  The  mind  perceives  that  it  is  moved  by 
its  own  power.  Cic.  A  me  pgtivit  ut  secum  essem,  He  asked  ({vom)fne  to  he 
with  him  (that  I  would  be).  Cic.  Pervestigat  quid  sui  cives  cogitent,  He 
tries  to  ascertain  whai  his  fellow  citizens  think.  Cic. 

1)  As  Sui  and  Suits  thus  refer  to  subjects,  the  demonstratives,  Is,  llle,  etc.,  trc-n- 
erally  refer  either  to  other  words,  or  to  subjects,  which  do  not  admit  sui  and  suus. 

Deum  agcoscis  ex  ejus  6peribns,  You  recognize  a  god  by  (from)  Jiift  works.  Cic. 
Obligat  civitatem  nihil  eos  mutatiiros,  He  binds  the  state  not  to  change  anything 
(ihat  they  will).  Just. 

2)  In  some  subordinate  clauses  the  writer  may  at  pleasure  use  either  the  Re- 
flexive or  the  Demonstrative,  according  as  he  wishes  to  present  the  thought  as  that 
of  the  principal  subject,  or  as  his  own.  Thus  in  the  last  example  under  448,  cum  iis 
is  the  proper  language  for  the  writer  wMhoni  reference  to  the  sentiment  of  the  princi- 
pal subject ;  secum,  which  would  be  equally  proper,  would  present  the  thought  as  the 
Bentiment  of  that  subject 

8)  Sometimes  the  Reflexive  occurs  where  wo  should  expect  the  Demonstrative, 
and  the  Demonstrative  where  we  should  expect  the  Reflexive. 

2.  Suus  =  His  OWN,  ETC. — Suus  in  the  sense  of  his  own,  fitting,  etc., 
may  refer  to  subject  or  object : 

Justitia  suum  cuique  tribuit,  Justice  gives  to  every  man  his  due  (his 
own).  Cic. 

8.  Construction  according  to  Sense.— When  the  subject  of  the  verb  is 
not  the  real  agent  of  the  action,  sui  and  suus  refer  to  the  latter : 

A  CaesSre  invltor  sibi  ut  sim  l6gatus,  /  am  invited  by  Caesar  (real 
agent)  to  be  his  lieutenant.  Cic. 

4.  Suus  Substantively.— The  Plural  of  Suus  used  substantively— Aw, 
their  friends,  possessions,  etc.— is  used  with  great  freedom,  often  referring 
to  oblique  cases : 

Fuit  hoc  luctu5sum  suis,  This  was  afflicting  to  his  friends.  Cic.  Here 
tuis  refers  to  an  oblique  case  in  the  preceding  sentence. 

5.  Sui  and  Suus  sometimes  refer  to  an  omitted  subject : 

Deforme  est  de  se  praedicSre,  To  boast  of  on^s  self  is  disgusting.  Cic. 

6.  Reflexives  referring  to  different  Subjects. — Sometimes  a  clause 
has  one  reflexive  referring  to  the  principal  subject,  and  another  referring 
to  the  subordinate  subject : 

Respondit  nCmlnem  sficum  sine  sua  pemJcie  contendisse.  He  replied 
that  no  one  had  contended  with  him  without  (his)  destruction.  Caes. 

Here  se  refers  to  the  subject  of  respondit  and  sua  to  nimlnem,  the  subject  of 
the  subordioate  clause. 


208  PEONOUNS. 

II.  Dbmonstkative  Pkonouns. 

450.  Hic^  Iste^  Ille,  are  often  called  respectively  de- 
monstratives of  the  First,  Second,  and  Third  Persons,  as 
hie  designates  that  which  is  near  the  speaker ;  iste,  that 
which  is  near  the  person  addressed,  and  ille^  that  which  is 
remote  from  both,  and  near  only  to  some  third  person. 

Gustos  hujus  urbis,  the  guardian  of  this  city.  Cic.  Muta  istam  men- 
tem,  Change  thai  purpose  of  yours.  Cic.  Si  illos  negligis,  if  you  disregard 
those.  Cic. 

1.  Hic  AND  Ille  in  Contrasts. — Hie  designates  an  object  conceived 
as  near,  and  ille  as  remote,  whether  in  space  or  time  : 

Non  antlquo  illo  more,  sed  hoc  nostro  fuit  erudltus,  He  was  educated, 
not  in  that  ancient^  but  in  this  our  modern  way.  Cic. 

2.  Hic  and  Ille,  former  and  latter.— In  reference  to  two  objects 
previously  mentioned,  (1)  Hic  generally  follows  Ille  and  refers  to  the  lat- 
ter object,  while  Ille  refers  to  the  former  ;  but  (2)  Hic  refers  to  the  more 
important  object,  and  Ille  to  the  less  important : 

Ignavia,  ISbor:  illa,hic ;  Indolence^  labor :  theform,er^  the  latter.  Cels. 
Pax,  victoria  :  haec  {pax)  in  tua,  ilia  in  deorum  potestate  est;  Peace,  vic- 
tory: the  former  is  in  your  power ^  the  latter  in  the  power  of  the  gods.  Liv. 

3.  Hic  and  Ille  are  often  used  of  what  immediately  follows  in  dis- 
course, and  Iste  sometimes  indicates  contempt :  haec  verba,  these  words, 
i.  e.,  the  following  words  ;  iste,  that  man,  such  a  one. 

4.  Ille  is  often  used  of  what  is  well  known,  famous : 
Medea  ilia,  tliat  loell-known  Medea.     Cic. 

1)  Hic  with  or  without  h6mo,  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  Igo.  Alone  It  is  soicc- 
times  equivalent  to  meua  or  noster. 

2)  Jffic,  ille,  and  is  arc  sometimes  redundant,  especially  with  guldem :  ScTpio 
non  multum  ille  quidem  dlccbat,  Scipio  did  not  indeed  say  much.  Cic.    See  446.  1. 

3)  A  Demonstrative  or  Relative  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  a  Genitive  or  a 
Prep,  with  its  case:  hic  dolor  =  dolor  hujus  rei,  grief  on  account  of  this;  haec  cura 
=  cura  de  hoc,  care  concerning  this. 

451.  is  and  Idem  refer  to  preceding  nouns,  or  are  the 
antecedents  of  relatives : 

Dionysius  aufagit :  is  est  in  provincia,  Dionysius  has  fed :  he  is  in 
the  province.  Cic.  Is  qui  sStis  hSbet,  he  who  has  enough.  Cic.  ESdem 
audire  malunt.  They  prefer  to  hear  the  same  things.  Liv. 

1.  Is  is  often  omitted,  especially  before  a  relative  or  a  genitive : 

Flebat  pater  de  f  Ilii  morte,  de  patris  i  ilius,  The  father  wept  over  the  death  of 
the  S071,  the  son  over  (that)  of  the  father.  Cic.    See  also  445.  6. 

2.  7s  or  Ipse  with  a  Conjunction  is  often  used  for  emphasis,  like  the  English 
and  that  too,  and  that  indeed : 


DEMONSTRATIVE    AND    RELATIVE   PRONOUNS.  209 

Uoam  rem  expllcubo  eamqae  maximam,  One  thing  I  will  eaoplain  and  that  too 
0,  most  important  one.  Cic, 

Jd  thus  used  often  refers  to  a  clause  or  to  the  general  thoueht,  and  et  ipse  is 
often  best  rendered,  too  or  also:  Audire  Cnitippum,  idque  AthGnis,  to  hear  Oratip- 
pu8,  and  that  too  at  Athens.  Cic, 

3.  Idem  is  sometimes  best  rendered,  uho,  yet : 

Nihil  utile,  quod  uon  Idem  honeetum,  Nothing  useful,  which  is  not  also  honor- 
able. Cic.  Quum  dicat— ncgat  Idem,  Though  he  asserts— he  yet  denies  (the  same 
denies).  Cia 

4.  Is— qui  =  he — who,  such— as,  such— that: 

11  sumus,  qui  esse  dSbCmus,  We  are  such  as  w»  ought  to  he.  Cic.  Eaest  geos 
quae  nesciat.  The  race  is  such  that  it  knoics  not.  Liv. 

5.  Idem — qui  ;  idem — ac,  atque,  quam,  quasi,  ut,  cum  with  Abl.  =  the  same— 
who,  the  same— as: 

lidem  mores,  qui,  The  same  manners  which  or  as.  Cic.  Est  idem  ac  fuit.  He 
is  the  same  as  he  was.  Ter. 

6.  Is  B^exive.    See  448. 

452.  Ipse  adds  emphasis,  generally  rendered  self: 

Ipse  Caesar,  Caesar  himself.  Cic.  Fac  ut  te  ipsum  custOdias,  See  that 
you  guard  yourself.  Cic. 

1.  Ipse  with  Subject.— 7/)se  belongs  to  the  emphatic  word,  whether  subject  or 
object,  but  with  a  preference  for  the  subject: 

Me  ipse  consOlor,  /  myself  (not  another)  console  myself.    Cic. 

2.  Ipse,  Very.— //)«e  is  often  best  rendered  by  very  : 
Ipse  ille  Gorgias,  that  very  Gorgias.  Cic. 

8.  With  Numerals  Ipse  has  the  force  oi—just  so  many,  just: 
Trigintadies  \^s\,just  thirty  days.  Cic. 

4.  Ipse  in  the  Genitive  with  possessives  has  the  force  of  own,  one's  ovon  : 
Nostra  ipsOrum  iimicitia,  Our  ovm  friendship.  Cic.    See  397.  3. 

5,  Ipse  Reflexive^  sometimes  supplies  the  place  of  an  emphatic  sui  or  suus: 
L^gutos  misit  qui  ipsi  vitam  pfitcrent.  He  sent  messengers  to  ask  life  for  hinv- 

»eV.    SalL 

III.  Relative  Pronouns. 

453.  The  relative  is  often  used  where  the  English 
idiom  requires  a  demonstrative  or  personal  pronoun ;  some- 
times even  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence : 

Res  loquttur  ipsa  ;  quae  semper  vSlet ;  The  fact  itself  speaks,  and  this 
(which)  ever  has  weight.  Cic.  Qui  proelium  committunt,  TTiey  engage  bat- 
tle. Caes.     Quae  quum  Ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so.  Cic. 

1.  Rblativb  with  Demonstrativb.— Relatives  and  Demonstratives  are 
often  correlatives  to  each  other :  hie — qui,  iste — qui,  etc.  These  combina- 
tions generally  retain  the  ordinary  force  of  the  separate  words,  but  see  is 
— quif  idem — qui,  451.  4  and  5. 

1)  Quicunque  and  Quisquis,  whoever,  whatever,  sometimes  have  the  force  of 
*Tery  by  the  ellipsis  of  fieri  p6test:  quucunque  rdtione,  in  every  way,  i.  e.,in  what- 
ever way  it  is  possible. 


210  RELATIVE   AND   INTEKROGATIVE   PP.OXO\JNS. 

2.  A  Demonstrative  may  supply  the  place  of  a  Relative  when  other- 
wise two  relative  clauses  would  be  brought  together : 

Quae  nee  haberemus  nee  his  uteremur,  Which  we  should  neither  havt 
nor  use.  Cic. 

1)  A  Relative  Clause  with  ia  is  often  equivalent  to  a  substantive :  ii  qui  av^ 
diunt  =  auditores,  hearers. 

3.  Two  Relatives  sometimes  occur  in  the  same  clause : 

Artes  quas  qui  tenent,  arts,  whose  possessors  (which,  who  possess).  Cic. 

4.  A  Relative  Clause  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  Fro  with  the  Abl. : 
Quae  tua  prudentia  est  =  qua  es  prudentia  =  pro  tua  prudentia  =  such 

is  your  prudence,  or  you  are  of  such  prudence,  or  in  accordance  with  yovr 
prudence,  etc. :  Spero,  quae  tua  prudentia  est,  te  valere,  /  hope  you  are 
welly  such  is  your  prudence  (which  is,  etc.). 

5.  Relative  with  Adjective.— Adjectives  belonging  in  sense  to  the 
antecedent,  sometimes  stand  in  the  relative  clause  in  agreement  with  the 
relative,  especially  comparatives,  superlatives,  and  numerals : 

Vasa,  quae  pulcherrima  viderat,  the  most  beautiful  vessels  which  he  had 
seen  (vessels,  which  the  most  beautiful  he  had  seen).  Cic.  De  servis  suis, 
quem  habuit  f  idelissimum,  misit.  He  sent  the  nwstfaUhful  of  the  slaves  which 
he  had.  Nep. 

6.  Quod  Expletive,  or  apparently  so,  often  stands  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence, 
especially  before  ni,  nisi,  etsi,  and  sometimes  before  quia,  quoniam,  iitinam,  etc. 
In  translating  it  is  sometimes  omitted,  and  sometimes  rendered  by  now,  but,  and : 

Quod  si  cecidcrint,  if  or  but  if  they  should  fall.  Cic. 

7.  Qui  dlcitur,  qui  v6edtur,  or  the  corresponding  active  quem  dlcunt,  quem 
vdcant,  are  often  used  in  the  sense  of  so  called,  the  so  called,  uhat  they  or  you  aiU, 
etc.: 

Vestra  quae  dicitnr  vita,  mors  est,  Your  so  called  life  (lit  your,  tchich  is 
called  life)  is  death.  Cic.  Lex  ista  quam  vocas  non  est  lex,  That  laic  as  you  call  it, 
is  not  a  law.  Cic, 

IV.    IXTEREOGATIVE    PrONOUNS. 

454.  The  Interrogative  quis,  is  used  substantively ; 
qui,  adjectively : 

Quis  ego  sum,  Who  am  I?  Cic.  Quid  fSciet,  What  will  he  do  i  Cic. 
Qui  vir  fuit,  What  kind  of  a  man  was  he  ?  Cic. 

1.  Qcis  AND  Qui.— Occasionally  quis  is  nsed  adjectively  and  qui  substantively: 
Quis  rex  unquam  fuit,  WJiat  king  was  there  ever  f  Cic.    Qui  sis,  consTdera, 

Consider  who  you  are.  Cic. 

2.  Quid,  why^  how  is  it  that,  etc,  is  often  used  adverbially  (880.  2),  or  etands 
apparently  unconnected,  by  the  ellipsis  of  propter  or  a  verb :  Quid  inim,  why  then  ? 
what  indeed  (est  or  dlcam)  f    Quid  quod,  what  of  the  fact  that  ? 

3.  Two  Intekrogatives  sometimes  occur  in  the  same  clause : 

Quis  quem  fraudavit,  who  defrauded,  and  whom  did  he  defraud  (lit.  who  de- 
frauded whom)  "i  Cic. 

4.  Attraction.— The  interrogative  often  agrees  with  the  predicate  noun* 
Quam  (for  quid)  dTcam  vdluptatem  vidctis,  You  nee  what  I  call  pleasure.  Cic. 


PROXOUNS.  211 

V.  Indefinite  Pronouns. 

455.  Aliquis^  quis,  qui,  and  quispiatn^  are  all  indefi- 
nite, sotne  one,  any  one  : 

Est  aiiquis,  there  is  some  one.  Liv.  Dixit  quis,  some  one  said.  Cic.  Si 
quis  rex,  if  any  king.  Cic.     Alia  re3  quaepiam,  any  otlur  thing.  Cic. 

1.  Atlquis  Is  less  Indefinite  than  quis,  qui,  and  quispiam. 

2.  Quis  and  qui  arc  used  chiefly  after  si,  nisi,  ne,  and  num.  Quis  is  generally 
used  substantively  and  qui  adjectlvely.    Aliquis  after  si,  etc.,  is  emphatic 

456.  Quidarn,  a  certain  one,  is  less  indefinite  than 
aliquis : 

Quidam  rhetor  antlquus,  a  certain  ancient  rlietorician.  Cic.  Accurrit 
qui  Jam,  A  certain  one  runs  up.  Hor. 

1.  Quidam  with  an  A^ectlve  Is  sometimes  used  to  qualify  or  soften  the  state- 
ment: 

Justitia  miiifica  quaedam  vMGtur,  Justice  seems  somewhat  wonderful  Cic. 

2.  Quidam  with  qudsi  and  sometimes  without  it,  has  the  force  of  a  certain,  a 
kind  of,  as  it  were : 

Quasi  Alumna  quaedam,  a  certain  foster  child  ow  it  were.  Cic. 

457.  Quisquam  and  ullus  are  used  chiefly  in  negative 
and  conditional  sentences,  and  in  interrogative  sentences 
implying  a  negative : 

Neque  me  quisquam  agnovit,  Nor  did  any  one  recognize  me.  Cic.  Si 
quisquam,  if  any  one.  Cic.  Num  censes  uUum  Sulmal  esse,  do  you  think 
tliere  is  any  animal  ?  Cic. 

1.  Nemo  is  the  negative  ot  quisquam,  and  like  quisquam  is  generally  uaed  sub- 
Btantlvely,  rarely  adjectlvely : 

Ncminem  laeslt,  He  harmed  no  one.  Cic.    Nemo  poeta,  no  poet.  Cic. 

2.  NuUus  is  the  negative  of  ullus,  and  is  generally  used  adjectlvely,  but  it  some 
times  supplies  the  Gen.  and  Abl.  of  nemo,  which  generally  wants  those  cases  : 

Nullum  animal,  no  animal.  Cic.    NuUius  aures,  the  ears  of  no  one.  Cic. 
8.  Xullus  for  non.—Nullus  and  nihil  are  sometimes  used  for  an  emphatic  non. 
NuUus  vcnit.  He  did  not  come.  Cic    Mortui  nulll  sunt,  TTie  dead  are  not.  Cic. 

458.  Qulvis,  Qulllbet,  any  one  whatever,  and  Quisque^ 
every  one,  each  one,  are  general  indefinites  (191)  : 

Quaellbet  res,  any  thing.  Cic.  Tuorum  quisque  nScessariOmm,  each 
one  of  your  frien  ds.  Cic. 

1.  Quisque  with  Superlatives  and  Ordinals  is  generally  best  r«ndered  by  aU  or 
by  ever,  always,  with  primus  by  very,  possible  : 

Epicurcos  doctlsslmus  quisque  contemnit.  All  the  most  learned  despise  theEpi- 
cureans.or  the  most  learned  ever  despise,  etc  Cic.  Primo  quoque  die,  the  earliest 
day  possible,  the  very  first.  Cic 

2.  Ut  Quisque — Ma  with  the  superlative  In  both  clauses  Is  often  best  rendered, 
the  more— the  more : 

Ut  quisque  sibl  plurimum  confldlt,  Its  mazlme  excellit,  Th4  more  one  confld** 
in  himself,  the  more  he  excels.  Cic 


212  PKOXOUNS.      VERBS. 

459.  Alius  and  Alter  are  often  repeated :  dlius — dlius^ 
one — another ;  alii — alii,  some — others  ;  alter — alter,  the 
one — the  other ;  alteri — alteri,  the  one  party — the  other : 

Alii  gloriae  serviunt,  alii  pecuniae,  Some  are  slaves  to  glory^  others  to 
money.  Cic.  Alteri  dimicant,  alteri  timent,  One  party  contends,  the  other 
fears.  Cic. 

1.  Aliiis  repeated  in  diflferent  cases  often  involves  an  ellipsis  : 

Alius  alia  via  civitatem  auxGrunt,  They  advanced  the  state,  one  in  a.ie  way, 
another  in  another.  Liv.  So  also  with  dlias  or  dlUer :  Aliter  alii  vivunt,  Some  live 
in  one  way,  others  in  another.  Cic. 

2.  After  Alius,  Aliter,  and  the  lilie,  atque,  ac,  and  et  often  mean  than  : 
Non  alius  essem  atque  sum,  I  would  not  be  other  than  I  am.  Cic. 

8.  Alter  means  the  one,  the  other  (of  two),  the  second ;  alius,  another,  other. 
When  alter— alter  refers  to  objects  previously  mentioned,  the  first  aWer  usually  refers 
to  the  latter  object,  but  may  refer  to  either: 

Inimicus,  competitor,  cum  altcro— cum  altero,  an  enemy,  a  rival,  with  the  lai^ 
Ur—with  the  former.  Cic 

4.  Uterque  means  both,  each  of  two,  and  in  the  Plu.  both,  each  qftwopariiMi 


CHAPTEK    Y. 
SYNTAX    OF   VERBS. 


SECTION  I. 

AaBEEMENT  OF  VERBS. 

ETJLE  XXXV.— Verb  with  Subject. 

460.  A  Finite  Yerb  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  num- 
ber and  PERSON : 

Deus  mundura  aedificavit,  God  made  the  world.  Cic,  Ego  reges 
ejeci,  vos  tyrannos  introdudtis,  /  have  banished  kings,  you  introduce  ty- 
rants. Cic. 

1.  Participles  in  Compound  Tenses  agree  with  the  subject 
according  to  438.     See  also  301.  2  and  3  : 

Thebani  accusati  sunt,  The  Thebans  were  accused.  Cic. 

1)  In  the  Infinitive,  the  Participle  in  um  sometimes  occurs  without  any  reference 
to  the  gender  or  number  of  the  subject: 

Diftidentia  futurum  quae  imperrivisset,/row  doubt  that  those  things  which  he 
had  commanded  would  take  place.  Sc^f. 


AGREEMENT    OF    VERBS.  213 

2.  Subject  Omitted.    See  367.  2. 

1)  An  Indefinite  Subject  is  often  denoted  by  the  Second  Pars.  Sing.,  or  by  tlie 
First  or  Third  Plur. :  dlcas^  you  (any  one)  may  say ;  dlclmus,  we  (people)  say ; 
(ilcunt,  they  say. 

3.  Vebb  Omitted.— See  367.  3. 

461 .  Construction  according  to  Sense. — Sometimes 
the  Predicate  is  construed  according  to  the  real  meaning 
of  the  subject  without  regard  to  grammatical  gender  or 
number.     Thus 

1.  With  Collective  Nouns,  pars,  muUUudOj  and  the  like  : 
Multltudo  &beunt,  The  multitude  depart.  Liv.    Pars  per  agros  dilapsi, 

a  part  (some)  dispersed  through  the  fields.  Liv. 

1)  Here  multltudo  and  para,  though  Sing,  and  Fern,  in  form,  are  Plur.  and 
Masc  in  sense.    See  also  488.  6. 

2)  Conversely  the  Imperative  Singular  may  be  used  in  addressing  a  multitude 
individually:  Adde  defectidnem  Sicillae,  Add  (to  this,  soldiers,)  the  revolt  of  Sicily. 
Liv. 

8)  Of  two  verbs  with  the  same  collective  noun,  the  former  is  often  Sing.,  and 
the  latter  Flur. :  Juventus  ruit  certantque,  TTie  youth  rush  forth  and  contend.  Virg. 

2.  With  Millia,  often  masculine  in  sense : 

Caesi  sunt  tria  millia,  Three  tJuyusand  men  were  slain.  Liv. 

3.  With  Quisque,  Uterque,  Alius — Alium,  Alter — Alterum,  and  the  like  • 
Uterque  educunt,  they  each  lead  out.  Caes.    Alter  altfirum  vidfimus, 

We  see  each  other.  Cic. 

4.  With  Singular  Subjects  accompanied  by  an  Ablative  with  cum: 
Dux  cum  pnncipibus  cSpiuntur,  The  leader  with  his  chiefs  is  taken. 

Liv.     See  438.  6. 

5.  With  Partim — Partim  in  the  sense  of  pars— pars  : 

BSnorum  partim  nScessSria,  partim  non  nficessaria  sunt.  Of  good 
things  some  are  necessary,  others  are  not  necessary.  Cic. 

462.  Agreement  with  Appositive  or  Predicate 
Noun. — Sometimes  the  verb  agrees,  not  with  its  subject, 
but  with  an  Appositive  or  Predicate  Noun  : 

Volsinii,  oppldum  Tuscorum,  concrSmatum  est,  Volsinii,  a  town  of 
the  7 means,  was  burjicd.  Plin.  Non  oranis  error  stultltia  est  dicenda,  Not 
every  error  should  be  called  folly.  Cic. 

1.  The  Verb  regularly  agrees  with  the  appositive  when  thut  is  urba,  oppldum, 
or  civltas,  in  appo.sitlon  with  plural  names  of  places,  as  in  the  first  example. 

1)  The  verb  sometimes  agrees  with  a  noun  in  a  subordinate  clause  after  quam, 
n?«t,  etc. :  Nihil  allud  nisi  pax  quaeslta  est  (not  quaealtum).  Nothing  but  peace 
toaa  sought.  Cic, 

2.  The  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate  noun,  when  that  is  nearer  or  more  em- 
phatic than  the  subject,  as  in  the  second  example. 


214  AGEEEMENT    OF   VERBS. 

463.  Agreement  with  Compound  Subject. — ^With 
two  or  more  subjects  the  verb  agrees — 

I.  With  one  subject  and  is  understood  with  the  others : 

Aut  mores  spectari  aut  fortuna  solet,  Either  character  or  fortune  ia 
wont  to  be  regarded.  Cic.  Homerus  fuit  et  Hesiodus  ante  Rbmam  condi- 
tam,  Homer  and  Hesiod  lived  (were)  before  the  founding  of  Rome.  Cic. 

II.  With  all  the  subjects  conjointly,  and  is  accordingly  iu  the 
Flural  N'umber : 

Lentulus,  Scipio  perieruiit,  Lentulus  and  Scipio  perished.  Cie.  Ego 
et  Cicero  valemus,  Cicero  and  I  are  well.  Cic.  Tu  et  Tulliu  valetis,  You 
and  Tullia  are  well.  Cic. 

1.  Person. — With  subjects  diflFering  in  Person,  the  verb  lakes  the  First 
Person  rather  than  the  Second,  and  the  Second  rather  than  lue  Thud,  as  iu 
the  examples  just  given. 

2.  Participles. — See  439. 

3.  Two  Subjects  as  a  Unit.— Two  singular  subjects  foiming  in  sense  a 
unit  or  whole,  admit  a  singular  verb  : 

Senatus  populusque  intelligit,  The  senate  and  people  (i.  e.,  the  state  as  a 
unit)  understand.  Cic.  Tempus  nScessitasque  postulat,  Time  and  necessity 
(i.  e.,  the  crisis)  demand.  Cic. 

4.  Subjects  with  Aut  or  Nec. — With  singular  subjects  connected  by 
aut,  vely  neCy  neque  or  seu,  the  verb  generally  agrees  with  the  nearest  sub- 
ject, but  with  subjects  differing  in  person,  it  is  generally  Plur. : 

Aut  Brutus  aut  Cassius  judicavit,  Either  Brutus  or  Cassius  judged.  Cic. 
Haec  nSque  6go  n&que  tu  fecimus,  Neither  you  nor  I  have  done  these  things, 
Ter. 

SEOTIOIT  II. 

USE   OF  VOICES. 

464.  In  a  transitive  verb,  the  Active  voice  represents 
the  subject  as  acting  upon  some  object,  the  Passive,  as  act- 
ed upon  by  some  other  person  or  thing : 

Deus  mundum  aedif  icavit,  God  made  the  world.  Cic.  A  Deo  omnia 
facta  sunt,  All  things  were  made  by  God.  Cic. 

465.  Active  and  Passive  Construction. — ^With  trans- 
itive verbs,  a  thought  may  at  the  pleasure  of  the  writer  be 
expressed  either  actively  or  passively.     But 

I.  That  which  in  the  active  construction  would  be  the  object  must  be 
the  subject  in  the  passive ;  and 

II.  That  which  in  the  active  would  be  the  subject  must  be  put  in  the 
nblative  with  a  or  a6,  for  persons,  without  it  for  things :  (871.6) ; 


VOICES.      TENSES.  215 

Deus  omnia  constltuit,  God  ordained  all  things,  or;  A  Deo  omnia  consti- 
fata  sunt,  All  things  were  ordained  by  God.  Cic.  Dei  provldentia  mundum 
administrat,  The  providence  of  God  rules  tJie  world,  or :  Dei  providentia 
muiidus  aduiinistratur,  2'/i€  world  is  ruled  by  the  provide?ice  of  God.  Cic. 

1.  The  Passive  Voice  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  the  Act.  with  a  reflex- 
ive pronoun,  like  the  Greek  Middle ; 

Livantur  in  flumlnibus.  They  bathe  (wash  themselves)  in  the  rivers.  Caes. 

2.  Intransitive  Verbs  (11)3)  have  regularly  only  the  active  voice,  but 
they  are  sometimes  used  impersonally  in  the  passive  : 

Cunitur  ad  praetorium.  They  run  to  the praetorium  (it  is  run  to).  Cic. 

8.  Deponent  Verbs,  though  Passive  in  form,  are  in  signification  transi- 
tive or  intransitive: 

lUud  mlrSbar,  I  admired  that.  Cic.  Ab  urbe  prSflcisci,  to  set  out  from 
the  city.  Caes. 

4.  Semi-Deponents  (271,  3)  have  some  of  the  Active  forms  and  some  of 
the  Passive,  without  change  of  meaning. 


SECTION  III. 

TENSES   OF   TEE  INDICATIVE. 

I.  Peesent  Indicative. 

466.  The  Present  Indicative  represents  the  action  of 
the  verb  as  taking  place  at  the  present  time : 

Ego  et  Cicfero  valemus,  Cicero  and  I  are  well.  Cic.  Hoc  te  rogo,  1 
ask  you  for  this.  Cic. 

467.  Hence  the  Present  Tense  is  used, 

I.  Of  actions  and  events  which  are  actually  taking  place  at 
the  present  time,  as  in  the  above  examples. 

II.  Of  actions  and  events  which,  as  helong'ng  to  all  time,  be- 
long of  course  to  the  present,  as  general  truths  and  ciLstoma: 

Nihil  est  jimabTlius  virtute,  Nothing  is  more  lovely  than  virtue.  Cic. 
Fortes  fortuna  adjuvat,  Fortune  helps  the  brave.  Ter. 

III.  Of  past  actions  and  events  which  the  writer  wishes,  for 
effect,  to  picture  before  the  reader  as  present.  The  Present,  when 
so  used,  is  called  the  Historical  Present : 

Jugurtha  vallo  moenia  circumdat,  Jugurtha  surrounds  the  cUy  vnth  a 
rampart.  SalL   . 

1.  Historical  Present. — The  historical  present  may  sometimes  be 
best  rendered  by  the  English  Imperfect,  and  sometimes  by  the  English 
Present,  as  that  has  a  similar  historical  use. 


216  TENSES    OF   THE   INDICATIVE. 

2.  Present  with  Jamdiu,  Jamdudcm. — The  Present  is  often  used  of  a 
present  action  which  has  been  going  on  for  some  time,  rendered  have,  espe- 
cially dLftQT  jamdiu,  jamdudumy  etc. 

Jamdiu  ignoro  quid  agas,  /  have  not  known  for  a  long  time  what  you 
are  doing,  Cic. 

1)  The  Imperfect  is  used  in  the  same  way  of  a  past  action  which  had  been 
going  on  for  some  time.  Thus  in  the  example  above,  Jamdiu  ignoraham^  would 
mean,  J  had  not  known  for  a  long  time. 

2)  The  Present  in  the  Infinitive  and  Participle  is  used  in  the  same  way  of  an 
action  which  has  been  or  had  been  going  on  for  some  time. 

8.  Present  applied  to  Authors. — The  Present  in  Latin,  as  in  English, 
may  be  used  of  authors  whose  works  are  extant : 

XSnophon  fScit  Socratem  dispiitantem,  Xenophon  represents  Socrates 
discussing.  Cic. 

4.  Present  with  Dum. — With  dum,  in  the  sense  of  while,  the  Present 
is  generally  used,  even  of  past  actions : 

Dum  ea  parant,  Saguntum  oppugnabatur,  While  they  were  (are)  making 
these  preparations,  Saguntum  was  attacked.  Liv. 

5,  Present  for  Future. — The  Present  is  sometimes  used  of  an  action 
really  future,  especially  in  conditions : 

Si  vincimus,  omnia  tQta  Srunt,  If  we  conquer,  all  things  will  he  safe.  Sail. 

II.  Imperfect  Indicative. 

468.  The  Imperfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as 
taking  place  in  past  time  : 

Stabant  nobilis^mi  juvenes,  There  stood  (were  standing)  most  noble 
youths.  Liv.     CoUes  oppidum  cingebant,  Hills  encompassed  the  town.  Caea. 

469.  Hence  the  Imperfect  is  used  especially 

I.  In  lively  description^  whether  of  scenes  or  events : 

Ante  oppidum  planJties  pStebat,  Before  the  town  extended  a  plain. 
Caes.  Fulgentes  glSdios  videbant,  They  saw  (were  seeing)  the  gleaming 
swords.  Cic. 

II.  Of  customary  or  repeated  actions  and  events,  often  render- 
ed by  was  wont,  etc. : 

PausSnias  epiilabatur  more  Persarum,  Pausanias  was  wont  to  banquet 
in  the  Persian  style.  Nep. 

1.  Imperfect  of  Attempted  Action. — The  Imperfect  is  sometimes  use<> 
ef  an  attempted  or  intended  action  : 

Sedabant  tiimultus.  They  attempted  to  quell  the  seditions.  Liv. 

2.  Imperfect  in  Letters. — See  472.  1. 


FUTURE  AND   PEBFECT.  217 

III.  Future  Indicative. 

470.  The  Future  Indicative  represents  the  action  as 
one  which  will  take  place  in  future  time : 

Scribam  ad  te,  /  loill  write  to  you.  Cic.  Nunquam  aberrabimus,  We 
shall  never  go  astray.  Cic. 

1.  FuTUEB  WITH  Imperative  Force.— In  Latin  as  in  English,  the  Future 
Indicative  sometimes  has  the  force  of  an  Imperative : 

CarSbis  et  scribes,  You  will  take  care  and  write.  Cic, 

2.  Latin  Future  for  English  Present. — Actions  which  really  belong 
to  future  time  are  almost  invariably  expressed  by  the  Future  Tense,  though 
sometimes  put  in  the  present  in  English  : 

Naturam  si  s6qu6mur,  nunquam  SberrSbimus,  If  we  follow  nature,  we 
shall  never  go  astray.  Cic. 

8.  Future  Indicative  with  Melius. — "With  melius  the  Future  Indicative 
has  often  the  force  of  the  Subjunctive  : 

M61ius  p6ribimu3,  We  would  jaerish  rather,  or  ii>  would  he  better  for  us  to 
perish.  Liv. 

rV.  Perfect  Indicativb. 

471.  The  Perfect  Indicative  has  two  distinct  uses: 

I.  As  the  Present  Perfect  or  Perfect  Definite,  it 
represents  the  action  as  at  present  completed,  and  is  ren- 
dered by  our  Perfect  with  have : 

De  gSn^re  belli  dixl,  /  have  spoken  of  the  character  of  the  war.  Cic. 

II.  As  the  Historical  Perfect  or  Perfect  Indefi- 
nite, it  represents  the  action  as  a  simple  historical  fact : 

Miltiades  est  accusatus,  Miltiades  was  accused.  Nep. 

1.  Perfect  of  what  has  ceased  to  be.— The  Perfect  is  sometimes  used 
where  the  emphasis  rests  particularly  on  the  completion  of  the  action,  im- 
plying that  what  was  true  of  the  past,  is  not  true  of  the  present : 

HSbuit,  non  hSbet,  He  had,  but  has  not.  Cic.  Fuit  Ilium,  Ilium  was. 
Virg. 

2.  Perfect  Indicative  with  Paene,  Prope.— The  Perfect  Indicative 
with  paene,  prbpe,  may  often  be  rendered  by  might,  would,  or  by  the  Plu- 
perfect Indicative : 

BrQtum  non  minus  &mo,  paene  dixi,  quam  te,  /  love  Brutus  not  less,  I 
might  almost  say,  or  I  had  almost  said,  than  I  do  you.  Cic. 

3.  Perfect  for  English  Present. — The  Latin  sometimes  employs  the 
Perfect  and  Pluperfect  where  the  English  uses  the  Present  and  Imperfect, 
especially  in  repeated  actions,  and  in  verbs  which  want  the  Present  (297). 


218  PLUPERFECT   AND    FITTUEE    PERFECT. 

MSminit  praetSritorum,  He  remembers  the  past,  Cic.  Quum  ad  riliam 
vfini,  hoc  me  delectat,  When,  I  come  (have  come)  to  a  villa,  this  pleases  me. 
Cic.    Memineram  Paulum,  /  remembered  Paulus.  Cic. 

4.  Perfect  with  Postquam. — Postquam,  ut,  ut  prlmum,  etc.,  in  the 
sense  of  as  soon  as,  are  usually  followed  by  the  Perfect ;  sometimes  by  the 
Imperfect  or  Historical  Present.  But  the  Pluperfect  is  generally  used  of 
repeated  actions ;  also  after  postquam,  when  a  long  or  definite  interval 
intervenes: 

Postquam  cecidit  Ilium,  after  (as  soon  as)  Ilium  fell.  Virg.  Anno 
tertio  postquam  profugerat,  in  the  third  year  after  he  had  fled.  Nep. 

1)  As  a  Rare  Exception  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  occur  after 
postquam  (poateaquam) :  Posteaquam  aedilicasset  classes,  qfter  he  had  built  fleets. 
Cic. 

V.  Pluperfect  Indicative. 

472.  The  Pluperfect  Indicative  represents  the  action 
as  completed  at  some  definite  past  time  : 

Copias  quas  pro  castris  collocaverat,  reduxit,  He  led  back  the  forces 
which  he  had  stationed  before  the  camp.  Caes. 

1.  Tenses. — In  letters  the  writer  often  adapts  the  tense  to  the  time  of 
the  reader,  using  the  Imperfect  or  Perfect  for  the  Present,  and  the  Pluper- 
fect for  the  Imperfect  or  Perfect : 

Nihil  habebam  quod  scribSrem :  ad  tuas  omnes  epistolas  rescripseram, 
I  have  (had)  nothing  to  write :  I  have  already  replied  to  all  your  letters  (I  had 
replied,  1.  e.,  before  writing  this).  Cic. 

1)  The  Perfect  is  sometimes  used  of  Future  actions,  as  events  which  happen 
after  the  writing  of  the  letter  but  before  the  receipt  of  it  will  he  Future  to  the  writer 
but  Past  to  the  reader. 

2.  Pluperfect  for  English  Imperfect. — See  471.  3. 

3.  Pluperfect  to  denote  Rapiditt. — The  Pluperfect  sometimes  denotes 
rapidity  or  completeness  af  action  : 

Urbem  luctu  compleverant,  They  (had)  filed  the  city  with  mourning. 
Curt. 

VI.  Future  Perfect  Indicative. 

473.  The  Future  Perfect  Indicative  represents  the  ac- 
tion as  one  which  will  be  completed  at  some  future  time : 

Roraam  quum  venero,  scrlbam  ad  te,  When  I  shall  have  reached  Rome^ 
I  will  write  to  you.  Cic.  Dum  tu  haec  leges,  ego  ilium  fortasse  convenero, 
When  you  read  this,  I  shall  perhaps  have  already  met  him.  Cic. 

1.  Future  Perfect  to  denote  Certainty. — The  Future  Perfect  is  some' 
times  used  to  denote  the  speedy  or  complete  accomplishment  of  the  work : 
Ego  m«Mun  oftlcium  praestlf  6ro .  I  will  surely  discharge  my  duty.  Cae» 


INDICATIVE   AXD   SUBJUNCmVE.  219 

2.  The  FuTCBE  Perfect  for  English  Present  or  Future  is  rare,  but 
occurs  in  conditional  clauses  : 

Si  interpr^tari  potuero,  his  verbis  utitur,  If  lean  (shall  have  been  able 
to)  understand  him,  he  uses  these  words.  Cic. 

SECTION  IV. 

USB     OF     THE    INDICATIVE. 

EULE  XXXVI.— Indicative. 

474.  The  Indicative  is  used  in  treating  of  facts: 

Deus  mundum  aediflcavit,  God  made  the  world.  Cic.  Nonne  expul- 
Bus  est  patria,  Was  he  not  banished  from  his  country  i  Cic.  Hoc  feci,  dum 
licuit,  /  did  this  as  long  as  it  was  permitted,   Cic. 

475.  Special  Uses. — The  Indicative  is  sometimes  used 
where  our  idiom  would  suggest  the  Subjunctive  : 

1.  The  Indicative  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  is  often  so  used  in 
the  historical  tenses,  especially  in  conditional  sentences  (512.  2) : 

Haec  conditio  non  accipienda  fuit,  This  condition  should  not  have  been 
accepted.  Cic. 

2.  The  Historical  Tenses  of  the  Indicative,  particularly  the  Pluperfect, 
are  sometimes  used  for  Effect,  to  represent  as  an  actual  fact  something 
which  is  shown  by  the  context  never  to  have  become  fully  so : 

VlcfirSmus,  nisi  rfecfepisset  AntSnium,  We  should  have  {lit.  had)  con- 
quered, had  he  not  received  Antony.  Cic.     See  511.  2. 

3.  Pronouns  and  Relative  Adverbs,  made  general  by  being  doubled  or 
by  assuming  the  suffix  cunque  (187.  4),  take  the  Indicative : 

Quisquis  est,  is  est  sSpiens,  Whoever  he  is,  he  is  wise.  Cic.  Hoc  ulti- 
mum,  utcunque  initum  est,  proelium  fuit,  This,  however  it  was  commenced, 
was  the  last  battle.  Liv. 

4.  In  Expressions  of  Duty,  Necessity,  Ability,  and  the  like,  the  Latin 
often  uses  the  Indicative  where  the  English  does  not : 

Tardius  quam  debuSrat,  more  slowly  than  he  should  have  done.  Cic. 

1)  So  also  in  sum  with  aeqiium,  par,  justum, melius.  %itMiuH,longum,difficMe, 
ind  the  like :  Longum  est  persequl  utilitates,  //  would  be  tedious  (la  a  long  task)  to 
tnvmsrate  the  uses.  Cic 

SECTION  V. 

TENSES   OF   THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

476.  Tense  in  the  Subjunctive  does  not  designate  the 
time  of  the  action  as  definitely  as  in  the  Indicative,  but  it 
marks  with  greut  exactness  its  continuance  or  completion. 


220  TENSES   OF   THE   SUBJUKCTIVE. 

477.  The  Present  and  Imperfect  express  Incomplete 
action : 

Valeant  cives,  May  the  citizens  be  well.  Cic.  Utinam  vera  invgnire 
possem,  0  that  I  were  able  to  find  the  truth.  Cic. 

478.  The  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  express  Completed 
action : 

Oblitus  es  quid  dixSrim,  You  have  forgotten  what  I  said.  Cic.  ThS- 
mistocles,  quum  Graeciam  libSrasset,  expulsus  est,  Themistocles  was  ban- 
ished, though  he  had  liberated  Greece.  Cic. 

479.  The  Future  Tenses  are  wanting  in  the  Subjunctive :  the  mood 
itself — used  only  of  that  which  is  merely  conceived  and  uncertain — is  so 
nearly  related  to  the  Future,  that  those  tenses  are  seldom  needed.  Their 
place  is  however  supplied,  when  necessary,  by  the  periphrastic  forms  in 
rus  {481.  III.  1). 

480.  Sequence  oe  Tenses. — The  Subjunctive  Tenses 
in  their  use  conform  to  the  following 


RULE  XXXVII.— Sequence  of  Tenses. 

Principal  tenses  depend  upon  Principal  tenses :  His- 
torical upon  Historical : 

Nititur  ut  vincat,  He  strives  to  conquer.  Cic.  Nemo  erit  qui  censeat, 
There  will  be  no  one  who  will  think.  Cic.  Quaesiferas  nonne  putarem,  You 
had  asked,  whether  I  did  not  think.  Cic. 

481.  Application  of  the  Rule. — In  accordance  with  this 
rule, 

I.  The  Subjunctive  dependent  upon  a  Principal  tQuso—jpresentj 
present  perfect^  future,  future  perfect — is  put, 

1.  In  the  Present  for  Incomplete  Action : 

Video  quid  agas,  I  see  what  you  are  doing. 

Vidi  quid  agas,  J  have  seen  what  you  are  doing, 

Videbo  quid  agas,  I  shall  see  what  you  do. 

Videro  quid  agas,  /  shall  have  seen  what  you  do, 

2.  In  the  Perfect  for  Completed  Action : 

Video  quid  egSris,  /  see  what  you  have  done. 

Vidi  quid  egeris,  /  have  seen  what  you  have  done. 

Videbo  quid  egeris,  I  shall  see  what  you  have  done. 

Vid6ro  quid  egeris,  /  shall  have  seen  what  you  have  done. 


SEQUENCE   OF  TENSES.  221 

II.  The  Subjunctive  dependent  upon  a  Historical  tense — im- 
perfect^ historical  perfect^  pluperfect — is  put, 

1.  In  the  Imperfect  for  Incomplete  Action; 

Videbam  quid  agfires,  I  saw  what  you  were  doing. 

Vidi  quid  ageres,  I  saw  what  you  were  doing. 

Videram  quid  ageres,  /  had  seen  what  you  were  doing. 

2.  In  the  Pluperfect  for  Completed  Action  : 

Vidgbam  quid  Cgisses,  I  saw  what  you  had  done. 

Vidi  quid  eglsses,  J  saw  what  you  had  done. 

Videram  quid  egisses,  /  ?iad  seen  what  you  had  done. 

m.  The  Periphrastic  Forms  in  rus  conform  to  the  role : 

Video  quid  acturus  sis,  /  see  what  you  are  going  to  do. 

Videbam  quid  acturus  esses,  /  saw  what  you  were  going  to  do. 

1.  Future  Supplied. — The  Future  is  supplied  when  necessary  (470),  (1) 
by  the  Present  i  or  Imperfect  Subjunctive  of  the  periphrastic  forms  in  rtis, 
or  (2)  hyfuturum  sit  ut,^  with  the  regular  Present,  smdifuturum  esset  ut,  with 
the  regular  Imperfect,  The  first  method  is  confined  to  the  Active,  the  sec- 
ond occurs  in  both  voices : 

Incertum  est  quam  longa  vita  futura  sit,  It  is  uncertain  how  long  Ufe 
will  contiyme.  Cic.  Incertum  6rat  quo  missuri  classem  fdrent,  It  was  uncer- 
tain whither  they  would  send  the  fleet.  Liv. 

2.  Future  Perfect  Supplied. — The  Future  Perfect  is  supplied,  when 
necessary,  by  futurum  sit  ut,  with  the  Perfect,  and  futurum  esset  ut,  with 
the  Pluperfect.  But  this  circumlocution  is  rarely  necessary.  In  the  Passive 
it  is  sometimes  abridged  to  futurus  sim  and  futurus  essem,  with  the  Perfect 
participle : 

Non  diiblto  quin  confecta  jam  res  futara  sit,  I  do  not  doubt  that  the  thing 
will  have  been  already  accomplished.  Cic. 

IV.  The  HisTOEioAL  Present  is  treated  sometimes  as  a  Prin- 
cipal tense,  as  it  really  is  in  Form,  and  sometimes  as  a  Historical 
tense,  as  it  really  is  in  Sense  • 

1.  As  Principal  tense  according  to  its  Form  : 

Ubii  orant,  ut  sibi  parcat,  The  Ubii  implore  him  to  spare  them.  Caes. 

2.  As  Historical  tense  according  to  its  Sense : 

Persuftdet  Castico  ut  regnum  occupSret,  He  persuaded  Casticus  to  seize 
the  government.  Caes. 

V.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  often  refers  to  present  time, 
especially  in  conditional  sentences  (510.  1) ;  accordingly,  when 
thus  used,  it  is  treated  as  a  Principal  tense : 

>  The  Present,  of  coarse,  after  Principal  tenses,  and  the  Imperfect  after  Histori- 
cal tenses,  according  to  480. 

3  Futurum  sit,  etc.,  after  Principal  tenses,  &nd/iU(irwn  esset,  etc.,  after  Historl 
cal  tenses. 


222  SEQUENCE    OF   TENSES. 

Memorare  possem  quibus  in  locis  hostes  fuderit,  I  might  (now)  state  in 
what  places  he  routed  the  enemy,  ball. 

VI.  The  Peesent  and  Future  Infinitives,  Present  and  Future 
Paetioiples,  as  also  Geeunds  and  Supines,  share  the  tense  of  the  verb 
on  which  they  depend,  as  they  express  only  relative  time  (540. 571) : 

Spero  fore '  ut  contingat,  I  hope  it  will  happen  (I  hope  it  will  be  that 
it  may  happen).  Cie.  Non  speraverat  fore  ut  ad  se  def  loerent,  He  had  not 
hoped  thai  tJiey  would  revolt  to  him.  Liv. 

482.  Pecitliarities  in  Sequence. — The  following 
peculiarities  in  the  sequence  of  tenses  deserve  notice  : 

1.  After  Perfect  Tense. — The  Latin  Perfect  is  sometimes 
treated  as  a  Historical  tense,  even  when  rendered  with  have^  and 
thus  admits  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect : 

Quoniam  quae  subsidia  haberes  exposui,'*  nunc  dicam,  Since  I  have 
shown  what  aids  you  have  (or  had)^  I  will  now  speak.  Cic. 

2.  After  Historical  Tenses. — Conversely  Historical  tenses, 
when  followed  by  clauses  denoting  consequence  or  result^  often  con- 
form to  the  law  of  sequence  for  Principal  tenses,  and  thus  admit 
the  Present  or  Perfect : 

EpSmlnondas  fide  sic  usus  est,  ut  possit  judicari,  Epaminondas  used 
such  fidelity  that  it  may  be  judged.  Nep.  Adeo  excellebat  Aristides  ab- 
stinentia,  ut  Justus  sit  appellatus,  Aristides  so  excelled  in  self-control,  that 
he  has  been  called- the  Just.  Nep. 

This  peculiarity  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  Result  of  a  past  action  may  itself 
be  present  and  may  thus  be  expressed  by  a  Principal  tense.  When  the  result  belongs 
to  the  present  time,  the  Present  is  used :  possit  judicari,  may  be  judged  now;  when 
it  is  represented  as  at  present  completed,  the  Perfect  is  used :  sii  appellatus,  has 
been  called  i.  e.  even  to  the  present  day ;  but  when  it  is  represented  as  simulta- 
neous with  the  action  on  which  it  depends,  the  Imperfect  is  used  in  accordance 
with  the  general  rule  of  sequence  (4S0). 

3.  In  Indirect  Discourse,  Oratio  Obliqua. — In  indirect  dis- 
course (528.  and  633.  1)  dependent  upon  a  Historical  tense,  the 
narrator  often  uses  the  Principal  tenses  to  give  a  lively  effect  to 
his  narrative  ;  occasionally  also  in  direct  discourse : 

Exitus  fuit  orationis :  Neque  alios  vScare  agros,  qui  dSri  possint ; 
The  close  of  the  oration  was,  that  there  were  (are)  not  any  lands  unoccupied 
which  could  (can)  be  give7i.  Caes. 

^  Here /ore  shares  the  tense  ot  spero,  and  is  accordingly  followed  by  the  Present 
contingat,hut  below  it  shares  the  tense  of  sperdvirat,  &nd  is  accordingly  followed  by 
the  Imperfect  de/lcirent. 

2  Exponui,  though  best  rendered  by  our  Perf.  Def.  with  ha^e,  is  in  the  Latin 
treated  as  the  Historical  Pert  The  thought  is  as  follows:  Since  in  the  preceding 
topics  I  set  forth  the  aids  which  you  had,  I  will  note  speak,  &c 


SECTION  YL 

USE  OF  TUB  SUBJUNCTIVE 

483.  The  Subjunctive  represents  the  action  of  the  verb, 
not  as  an  actual  fact,  but  as  something  supposed  or  con- 
ceived.    It  may  denote  that  the  action  is  conceived, 

1.  As  Possible,  Potential. 

2.  As  Desirable. 

3.  As  a  Purpose  or  Result. 

4.  As  a  Condition. 

5.  As  a  Concession. 

6.  As  a  Cause  or  Reason. 

7.  As  an  Indirect  Question. 

8.  As  dependent  upon  another  subordinate  action  :  (1)  By  At- 
traction after  another  Subjunctive,  (2)  In  Indirect  Discourse. 

484.  Varieties. — The  Subjunctive  in  its  various  uses 
may  accordingly  be  characterized  as  follows : 

I.  The  Potential  Subjunctive. 
II.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire. 

III.  The  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  or  Result 

IV.  The  Subjunctive  of  Condition. 
V.  The  Subjunctive  of  Concession. 

VI.  The  Subjunctive  of  Cause  or  Reason. 
VII.  The  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Questions. 
VIII.  The  Subjunctive  by  Attraction. 
IX.  The  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

I.  The  Potential  Subjunctive. 
EXILE  XXXVni.— Potential  Subjunctive. 

485.  The  Potential  Subjunctive  represents  the  ac- 
tion not  as  real,  but  as  jpossible : 

Forsltan  quaeratis,  Perhaps  you  may  inquire.  Cic.  Hoc  nemo  dixu- 
rit,  No  one  would  say  this.  Cic.  Huic  cedamus,  hujus  conditiones  audia- 
mus,  Shall  we  yield  to  him,  shall  we  liMen  to  his  terms  ?  Cic.  Quis 
dubitet  (=  nemo  dubltat),  ^lio  would  doubt,  or  who  doubts  (=  no  one 
doubts)  ?  Cic.  Quid  fScerem,  What  was  I  to  do,  or  what  should  I  have 
done  ?   Virg. 

486.  Application  of  the  Rule. — ^In  the  Potential 
sense,  the  Subjunctive  is  used, 


224  POTENTIAL   SUBJUNCTIVE. 

I.  In  Declarative  Sentences,  to  express  an  affirmation  douMfully 
or  conditionally,  as  in  the  first  and  second  examples. 

II.  In  Questions  of  Appeal,^  to  ask  not  what  is,  but  what  may 
he  or  should  ie,  generally  implying  a  negative  answer,  as  in  the 
last  example  under  the  rule. 

III.  In  Subordinate  Clauses,  whatever  the  connective,  to  rep- 
resent the  action  as  possible  rather  than  real : 

Quamquam  epulis  careat  senectus,  though  old  age  may  he  withont  its 
feasts.  Cic.  Quoniam  non  possent,  since  they  would  not  he  able,  Caes. 
Ubi  res  posceret,  whenever  the  case  might  demand.  Liv. 

Here  the  Subjunctive  after  quamquam,  qu6niam,  and  ubi.  Is  entirely  in(lej)en- 
dent  of  those  conjunctions.  In  this  way  many  conjunctions  which  do  not  require  the 
Subjunctive,  admit  that  mood  whenever  the  thought  requires  it. 

1.  Use  of  the  Potential  Subjunctive. — This  Subjunctive,  it  will  be 
observed,  has  a  wide  application,  and  is  used  in  almost  all  kinds  of  sen- 
tences and  clauses,  whether  declarative  or  interrogative,  principal  or  sub- 
ordinate, whether  introduced  by  conjunctions  or  relatives. 

2.  How  rendered. — The  Potential  Subjunctive  is  generally  best  rendered 
by  our  Potential  signs — may,  can,  must,  might,  etc.,  or  by  shall  or  will. 

3.  Inclination. — The  Subjunctive  sometimes  denotes  inclination  : 
Ego  censeam,  I  should  think,  or  I  am  inclined  to  thinh.  Liv. 

4.  Imperfect  for  Pluperfect. — In  the  Potential  sense,  the  Imperfect 
is  often  used  where  we  should  expect  the  Pluperfect :  diceres,  you  would 
have  said ;  crederes, putdres,  you  would  have  thought ;  mderes,  cerneres,  you 
would  have  seen ; 

Moesti,  crederes  victos,  rSdeunt  in  castra.  Sad,  vanquished  you  would 
have  thought  them,  they  returned  to  the  camp.  Liv. 

5.  Subjunctive  of  Repeated  Action. — Subordinate  clauses  in  narration 
sometimes  take  the  Subjunctive  to  denote  that  the  action  is  often  or  indefi- 
nitely repeated.  Thus  with  iihi,  whenever,  qu^ties,  as  often  as,  qulcunque, 
whoever,  ut  quisque,  as  each  one,  and  the  like  : 

Id  fetialis  ubi  dixisset,  hastam  mittebat.  The  fetial  priest  was  wont  to 
hurl  a  spear  whenever  (i.  e.,  every  time)  he  had  said  this.  Liv. 

6.  Present  and  Perfect. — In  the  Potential  Subjunctive  the  Perfect 
often  has  nearly  the  same  force  as  the  Present : 

Tu  Platonem  laudavSris,  You  would  praise  Plato.  Cic. 
1)  The  Perfect  with  the  force  of  the  Present  occurs  also  in  some  of  the  other 
uses  of  the  Subjunctive. 

7.  Conditional  Sentences. — The  Subjunctive  in  the  conclusion  of  con- 
ditional sentences  is  the  Potential  Subjunctive,  but  conditional  sentences 
will  be  best  treated  by  themselves.    See  502. 

1  These  are  also  variously  called  Deliberative,  Doubting,  or  Bhetoricc^ 
Q'losiions. 


SUBJUNCTIVE.  225 

IL  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire. 
EULE  XXXIX.— Desire,  Command. 

487.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  represents  the  ac- 
tion not  as  real,  but  as  desired : 

VSleant  elves,  May  the  citizens  he  well.  Cic.  Arngmus  patriam,  Let  us 
love  our  country.  Cic.  Robore  utSre,  Use  your  strength.  Cic.  Scrlb^re 
ne  pigr5re,  Do  not  neglect  to  write.  Cic. 

488.  Application  of  the  Eule. — The  Subjunctive  of  Desire 
is  used, 

I.  To  express  a  wish,  as  in  prayers,  exhortations,  and  entreor 
ties,  as  in  the  first  and  second  examples. 

II.  To  express  a  command  mildly,  as  in  admonitions,  precepts, 
and  warnings,  as  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples. 

1.  "With  Utixam.— The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  often  accompanied  by 
ittinam,  and  sometimes— especially  in  the  poets,  by  ut,  si,  o  si : 

Utinam  c5nSta  eflficfire  possim,  May  I  be  able  to  accomplish  my  endeav- 
ors. Cic. 

2.  Force  of  Tenses. — The  Present  and  Perfect  imply  that  the  wish  may 
be  fulfilled  ;  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  that  it  cannot  be  fulfilled  : 

Sint  beSti,  May  they  be  happy.  Cic.  Ne  transi6ris  IbCrum,  Do  not  cross 
the  Fbro.  Liv.  Utinam  possem,  utfnam  pfituissem,  Would  that  I  were  able, 
would  that  I  had  been  able.  Cic.    See  also  486.  6.  1). 

The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  may  often  be  best  rendered,  should  have  been, 
ought  to  hare  been : 

Hoc  diceret,  ffe  should  have  said  this.  Cic.  Mortem  oppStiisses,  You  should 
have  met  death.  Cic. 

8.  Negative  Ne. — With  this  Subjunctive  the  negative  is  ne,  rarely  non : 
Ne  audeant,  Let  them  not  dare.  Cic.    Non  rficedSmus,  Let  us  not  recede. 
Cic. 

4.  Ix  Asseverations. — The  first  person  of  the  subjunctive  is  often  found 
in  earnest  or  solemn  aflSrmations  or  asseverations  : 

Mfiriar,  si  piito,  May  I  die,  if  I  think.  Cic.  Ne  sim  salvus,  si  scribo, 
Uiy  I  not  be  safe,  if  I  write.  Cic. 

So  with  ita  and  sic:  SoUIcItat,  Ita  vivam.  As  Hive,  it  troubles  me.  Cic. 

Here  ita  vivam  mean.s  literally,  may  I  so  live,  i.  e.,  may  I  lire  only  in  case  this 
Is  true. 

5.  In  Rblatxvk  Clauses. — The  Subjunctive  of  desire  is  sometimes  used 
in  relative  clauses : 

Quod  faustum  sit,  rggem  creSte,  Elect  a  king,  and  may  it  be  an  auspicious 
event  (may  which  be  auspicious).  Liv.  S6nectus,  ad  quaim  iitlnam  pervSniS- 
tis,  old  age,  to  which  may  you  attain.  Cic. 


226  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

III.  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  or  Result. 

RULE  XL— Purpose  or  Result. 

489.  The  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  or  Result  is  used, 

I.  With  ut,  ne,  quo,  quin,  quomiaus  : 

Purpose. — EnitUur  ut  vincat,  He  strives  that  lie  may  conquer.  Cic. 
Punit  ne  peccetur,  He  punishes  that  crime  may  not  be  committed.  Sen. 

Result. — Ita  vixit  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  carissimus,  He  so  lived  that  he 
was  very  dear  to  the  Athenians.  Nep. 

II.  With  qui  =  ut  is,  ut  ego,  tu,  etc. : 

PuRPOSK. — Missi  sunt,  qui  {ut  ii)  consiilerent  Apollinem,  Tlcey  were 
sent  to  consult  Apollo  (who  should  or  that  they  should).  Nep. 

Result. — Non  is  sum  qui  {ut  ego)  his  utar,  I  am  not  such  an  one  as  to 
use  these  things.  Cic. 

1.  Ut  with  the  Subjunctive  sometimes  forms  with/dcjo,  or  dgo.  rarely  with  est 
a  circumlocution  for  the  Indicative  :  fdcio  ut  dlcam  =  dico ;  fdcio  ut  scribam  = 
scribo:  Invitua  tacio  nt  rticorder^  I  umoillingly  recall.  Cic. 

Conjunctions  of  Purpose  or  Result. 

490.  Ut  and  Ne. —  Ut  and  ne  are  the  regular  conjunc- 
tions in  clauses  denoting  Purpose  or  Result.  Ut  and  ne 
denote  Purpose  ;  ut  and  ut  non,  Result. 

1.  With  connective  ne  becomes  neve,  neu,  rarely  nique.  Neve,  neu,  =  aut  ne  or 
ei  ne :  Legem  tulit  nequis  accusaretur  neve  multaretiu*,  jEfe  proposed  a  law  that  no 
one  should  be  accused  or  punished.  Nep. 

491.  Pure  Purpose. — TJt  and  ne — that,  in  order  that, 
that  not,  in  order  that  not,  lest,  etc. — are  used  after  verbs 
of  a  great  variety  of  significations  to  express  simply  the 
Purpose  of  the  action.  A  correlative — ideo,  idcirco,  etc. 
— may  or  may  not  precede  : 

Legura  idcirco  servi  sumus,  ut  llberi  esse  possTmus,  We  are  servant* 
of  the  law  for  this  reason,  that  we  may  be  free.  Cic.  See  also  the  examples 
under  the  Rule. 

492.  Mixed  Purpose. — In  their  less  obvious  applica- 
tions, ut  and  ne  are  used  to  denote  a  Purpose  which  par- 
takes more  or  less  of  the  character  of  a  Direct  Object, 
sometimes  of  a  Subject,  Predicate  or  Appositive — Mixed 
Purpose.     Thus  with  verbs  and  expressions  denoting 

1.  Effort. — striving  for  a  purpose ;  attaining  a  purpose : 

nitor,  contendo,  studeo, — euro,  id  ago,  SpSram  do,  etc.,  fScio,  eflficio, 
Impetro,  cons^quor,  etc. : 


PURPOSE   OR   RESULT.  227 

Contendit,  ut  vincat,  He  strives  to  conquer.  Cic.  CfirSvi  ut  bfine  viv6' 
rem,  I  took  care  to  had  a  good  life.  Sen.  Effecit  ut  impgrStor  mittgretur, 
He  caused  a  commander  to  be  sent  (attained  his  purpose).  Nep.    But  see  495. 

2.  Exhortation,  Impulse — urging  one  to  effort : 

admSneo,  mSneo,  hortor, — cSgo,  impello,  in6veo, — Cro,  rdgo, — imp&ro, 
praecipio,  etc. : 

Te  hortor  ut  16gas,  I  exhort  you  to  read.  Cic.  M5v6mur  ut  bSni  simuS; 
We  are  influenced  to  he  good.  Cic.  Te  rdgo  ut  eum  j  lives,  I  ask  you  to  aid 
him.  Cic.    See  also  561.  II.  1  and  2 ;  558.  VI. 

3.  Desiee  and  its  Expression  :  hence  decision,  decree,  etc. : 

opto,  postulo, — censeo,  dficerno,  statuo,  constituo,  etc. — rarely  v61o, 
nSlo,  malo : 

Opto  ut  id  audiStis,  /  desire  (pray)  that  you  may  hear  this.  Cic.  S6nS- 
tus  censu6rat,  uti  Aeduos  d6fend6ret,  The  senate  had  decreed  that  he  should 
de/md  the  Aedui.  Caes.     See  551.  II.  and  558.  II.  and  VI. 

4.  Fear,  Danger  : 

mfetuo,  timeo,  v6reor, — pSriculum  est,  cura  est,  etc. : 
Timeo,  ut  sustineas,  J  fear  you  will  not  endure  them.  Cic.     VSreor  ne 
l&b5rem  augeam,  I  fear  that  I  shall  increase  the  labor.  Cic. 

1)  By  a  Difference  of  Idiom  ut  must  here  be  rendered  that  not,  and  ne  by  tJiat 
or  lest.    The  Latin  treats  the  clause  as  a  wish,  a  desired  purpose. 

2)  After  verbs  of  fearing  ne  non  Is  sometiir.es  used  for  ut,  regularly  so  after 
negative  clauses:  Vercor  ne  non  possit,  I  fear  that  he  will  not  he  able.  Cic. 

8)  After  verbs  of  fearing,  especially  vireor,  the  inflnitivc  is  sometimes  used : 
Y»5reor  laudure,  I  fear  (hesitate)  to  praise.  Cic. 

493.  Peculiarities. — Expressions  of  Purpose  present 
the  following  peculiarities: 

1.  Ut  ne,  rarely  ut  non,  is  sometimes  used  for  ne : 
Praedixit,  ut  ne  ISgStos  dImittSrent,  He  charged  them  not  ^o  (that  they 

ihould  not)  release  the  delegates.  Nep.     Ut  plura  non  dicam,  not  to  say  more, 
i.  e.,  that  I  may  not.  Cic. 

2.  I7t  is  sometimes  omitted,  especially  with  Tola,  nolo,  mdlo, 
facto,  and  verbs  of  directing,  urging,  etc.  Ne  is  often  omitted 
with  cate: 

Tu  v61im  sis,  I  desire  that  you  may  be.  Cic.  Fac  hSbcas,  see  (make)  tJiat 
you  have.  Cic.  SfenStus  decrfivit,  dirent  6p6ram  consul&s,  The  senate  de- 
creed that  the  consuls  should  see  to  it.  Sail.     See  also  535.  1,  2). 

8.  Clauses  with  Ut  and  Ne  may  depend  upon  a  noun  or  upon 
a  verb  omitted : 

Fecit  pScem  his  condltionibus,  ne  qui  aff  IcSrentur  exsllio,  He  m/idepeact 
on  these  terms,  that  none  should  be  punished  with  exile.  Nep.  Ut  Ita  dIcam, 
w  to  speak  (that  I  may  speak  thus).  Cic.  This  is  often  inserted  in  a  stn- 
tence,  like  the  English  so  to  speak. 

n 


228  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

_  4.  Ntdum  and  Ne  in  the  sense  of  much  Uss^  not  to  say,  are  used 
witli  the  Subjunctive : 

Vix  in  tectis  frigus  vitatur,  nedum  in  mari  sit  facile,  The  cold  is  avoided 
with,  difficulty  in  our  houseSy  much,  less  is  it  easy  {to  avoid  it)  on  the  sea.  Cic. 

494.  PuEE  Result. — Ut  and  ut  non — so  that,  so  that 
not — are  often  used  with  the  Subjunctive,  to  express  simply 
a  Result  or  a  Consequence : 

Ita  vixit  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  carissimus,  He  so  lived  that  he  was 
very  dear  to  the  Athenians.  Nep.  Ita  laudo,  ut  non  pertimescam,  /  so 
praise  as  not  to  fear.  Cic. 

A  correlative— ?ia  in  these  examples— generally  precedes :  thus,  Ua,  sic,  tarn, 
ddeo,  tantdpere,— talis,  tantus,  ejusmodi. 

495.  Mixed  Result. — In  their  less  obvious  applica- 
tions, ut  and.  ut  non  are  used  with  the  Subjunctive  to  de- 
note a  Result  which  partakes  of  the  character  of  a  Direct 

Object.,  Subject,  Predicate,  or  Appositive :    Thus 

1.  Clauses  as  Object  and  Eesult  occur  with  fdcio,  efficio,  of 
the  action  of  irrational  forces : 

Sol  efficit  ut  omnia  floreant,  The  sun  causes  all  things  to  bloom,  i.  e., 
produces  that  result.  Cic.     See  492.  1. 

2.  Clauses  as  Subject  and  Eesult  occur  with  impersonal  verbs 
signifying  it  happens,  remains,  follows,  is  distant,  etc. : 

accidit,  contingit,  fivenit,  fit,  restat, — sequltur, — abest,  etc. 
Fit  ut  quisque  delectetur,  The  result  is  (it  ha-p-pens)  that  every  one  is 
delighted.  Cic.     Sequitur  ut  falsum  sit,  It  follows  that  it  is  false.  Cic. 

1)  The  Subjunctive  is  sometimes,  though  rarely,  used  when  the  predi- 
cate is  a  Noun  or  Adjective  with  the  copula  sum  : 

Mos  est  ut  nolint,  It  is  their  custom  not  to  be  willing  (that  they  are  un 
willing).  Cic.  Proximum  est,  ut  doceam,  The  next  point  is,  that  I  show. 
Cic.     See  656.  I.  1  and  2. 

2)  Subjunctive  Clauses  with  nt,  in  the  form  of  questions  expressive  of 
surprise,  sometimes  stand  alone,  by  the  omission  of  some  predicate,  as  cre- 
dendum  est,  verisimile  est,  is  it  to  be  credited,  is  it  probable  ? 

Tu  ut  unquam  te  corrigas,  that  you  should  ever  reform?  i.  e.,  Is  it  to  be 
supposed  that  you  will  ever  reform  ?  Cic. 
8)  See  also  556  with  its  subdivisions. 

3.  Clauses  as  Appositive  and  Result,  or  Peedicatk  and 
Result,  occur  with  Demonstratives  and  a  few  Nouns  : 

Habet  hoc  virtus  ut  delectet,  Virtue  has  this  advantage,  that  it  delights. 
Cic.  Est  hoc  vitiura,  ut  invidia  gloriae  comes  sit,  There  is  this  fault,  that 
envy  is  the  companion  of  glory.  Nep. 


PURPOSE   OB   RESULT.  229 

496.  Peculiarities. — Expressions  of  Result  present 
the  following  peculiarities : 

1.  UtiB  sometimes  omitted,  regularly  so  with  dportet,  generally 
with  opus  est  and  necesse  est : 

Te  6portet  virtus  trShat,  It  is  necessary  thai  virtue  should  attract  you. 
Cic.  Causam  h&beat  necesse  est,  It  is  necessary  that  it  should  have  a  oaiLse. 
Oic 

2.  The  Subjunctive  occurs  with  Quam — with  or  without  ut: 

'  LibSrSlius  quam  ;it  posset,  too  freely  to  be  able  (more  freely  than  so  as  to 
be  able).  Nep.  ImponCbat  amplius  quam  ferre  possent,  Ee  imposed  more 
than  they  were  able  to  bear. 

3.  Tantum  obest.—MtQV  tantum  abest  ut^  denoting  result,  a 
second  ut  of  result  sometimes  occurs  : 

Phllosdphia, te-ntum  ibest,  ut  laudeturiit  6tiam  vJtupSretur,  Sofarisit 
from  tlie  truth  (so  much  is  wanting),  thai  philosophy  is  praised  that  it  is  even 
censured.  Cic. 

497.  Quo. — Quo,  by  which^  that,  is  sometimes  used 
for  ut,  especially  with  comparatives  : 

MSdlco  diire  quo  sit  studiosior,  to  give  to  the  physician^  that  (by  this 
means)  he  may  be  more  attentive.  Cic. 
For  non  quo  of  Cause,  see  520.  3. 

498.  QuiN. — Quin  (qui  and  ne),  by  which  not,  that 
not,  is  often  used  to  introduce  a  Purpose  or  Result  after 
negatives  and  interrogatives  implying  a  negative.     Thus 

1.  Quin  is  often  used  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  ne  and  ut  non : 
Rfitlngri  non  pStSrant,  quin  tela  conjic6rent,  They  could  not  be  re- 
strained from  hurling  (that  they  might  not)  their  weapons.  Caes.     Nihil  est 
tarn  diflFicIle  quin  {ut  non)  investigari  possit,  Nothing  is  so  difficult  that  it 
may  not  be  investigated.  Ter. 

After  verbs  of  hindering^  opposing,  aod  the  like,  quin  has  the  force  of  ne. 

2.  Quin  is  often  used  after  Nemo,  Nullus,  Nihil,  Quis  f 
Adest  n6mo,  quin  videat.  There  is  no  one  present  who  does  not  see.  Cic. 

Quis  est  quin  cernat.  Who  is  there  who  does  not  perceive  f  Cic. 
Is  or  id  is  sometimes  expressed  after  quin  : 
Nihil  est  quin  id  int§reat,  There  is  nothing  which  does  not  perish.  Cic. 

3.  Quin  is  often  used  in  the  sense  of  that,  hut  that,  without 
with  a  participial  noun,  especially  after  negative  expressions,  im- 
plying douht,  uncertainty.,  omission,  and  the  like: 

Non  est  dubium  quin  b6n6f  Icium  sit,  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  a  bene- 
fit.  Sen.    Nullum  int6rmlsi  diem  quin  &liquid  d?.rem,  I  allowed  no  day  to 


230  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

pasSy  without  giving  something.  Cic.    Fac6re  non  possum  quin  littSras  mit- 
tam,  /  cannot  but  send  a  letter.  Cic. 

1)  Such  expressions  are:  non  dubito,  non  dubium  est — non  multum  abest,  pau- 
lum  abest,  nihil  ubest,  quid  abest ?— non,  vix,  ae^e  abstineo;  mihi  non  tempero; 
non,  nihil  praetermitto — facere  non  possum,  fieri  non  potest. 

2)  The  Infinitive,  for  QuinviXth  the  Subjunctive,  occurs  with  verbs  of  doubting: 
Quis  dubitat  psitGre  Europam,  Who  doubts  thai  Europe  is  exposed  ?  Curt. 

3)  JSlon  Quin  of  Cause.     See  520.  8. 

4)  Quin  is  used  in  questions  in  the  sense  of  why  not  t  ai;d  with  the  Imperative 
In  the  sense  of  well,  but :  Quin  agite,  but  come.  Virg.  It  occasionally  means  not/, 
even,  rather. 

499.  QuoMiNus. — Quommus  (quo  and  minus),  that 
thus  the  less,  that  not,  is  sometimes  used  for  ne  and  ut  non, 
after  verbs  of  hindering,  opposing,  and  the  like  : 

Nondeterret  sSpienteto  mors  quOminus  reipubllcae  consiilat,  Death  does^ 
not  deter  a  toise  man  from  deliberating  for  the  republic.  Cic.  Non  recusavit, 
quominus  poenam  sublret,  He  did  not  refuse  to  submit  to  punishment.  Nep. 
Per  eum  stetit  quominus  dimicaretur,  It  was  owing  to  him  (stood  through 
him),  that  the  engagement  was  not  made.  Caes. 

1.  Expressions  of  hindering,  etc.,  are:  dcterreo,  impedio,  pr6hibeo, — obsto, 
obsisto,  officio,— reciiso,  per  me  stat,  etc. 

2.  Verbs  of  hindering  admit  a  variety  of  constructions :  the  Infinitive,  the  Sub- 
junctive with  ut,  ne,  quo,  quin,  or  quominus. 


Relative  of  Purpose  or  Result, 

600.  A  Relative  Clause  denoting  a  Purpose  or  a  Re- 
sult is  equivalent  to  a  clause  with  ut,  denoting  purpose  or 
result,  and  takes  the  Subjunctive  for  the  same  reason.  The 
relative  is  then  equivalent  to  ut  with  a  pronoun :  qui  =  ut 
ego,  ut  tu,  ut  is,  etc. : 

Purpose. — Missi  sunt  qui  (ut  ii)  consulerent  Apollinem,  TTiey  were  sent 
to  consult  Apollo  (who  should,  or  that  they  should).  Nep.  Missi  sunt  delecti 
qui  Thermopylas  occupSrent,  Picked  men  were  sent  to  take  possession  of 
Thermopylae.  Nep. 

Result. — Non  is  sum  qui  (=  ut  Sgo)  his  utar,  /am  not  such  a  one  as  to 
use  these  things.  Cic.  Innocentia  est  affectio  talis  Snimi,  quae  {=  ut  ea)  no- 
ceat  nemini,  Innocence  is  such  a  state  of  mind  as  injures  no  one,  or  as  to  in- 
jure no  one.  Cic. 

1.  Relative  Paeticles. — The  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  same  way  in  clauses 
introduced  by  relative  particles  ;  ubi,  unde,  etc. : 

D6mum  ftbi  hSbitaret,  l6git.  He  seUctsd  a  hmise  that  he  might  dwell  in  it 
(where  he  might  dwell).  Cic 


PURPOSE    OB   RESULT.  231 

2.  PcRPOSE  AND  Result.— Relative  clauses  denoting  purpose  are  readily  recog- 
nized ;  those  denoting  result  arc  used,  in  their  more  obvious  applications,  after  such 
words  as  tarn,  so ;  talis,  is,  ejusmddi,  such,as  in  the  above  examples ;  but  see  also  501. 

3.  Indicative  after  Talis,  etc.— In  a  relative  clause  after  talis,  is,  etc.,  the 
Indicative  Is  sometimes  used  to  give  prommence  to  the/act : 

Mihl  causa  talis  oblata  est,  in  qua  oratio  deesse  nC-miui  pote&i.  Stick  a  cause  has 
been  offered  me,  (one)  in  which  no  one  can/ail  of  an  oration,  Cic 

oOl.  Relative  clauses  of  Result,  in  their  less  obvious 
applications,  include, 

I.  Relative  clauses  after  Indefinite  and  General  antecedents. 
Here  tarn,  talis,  or  some  such  word,  may  often  he  supplied  : 

Nunc  dicis  Sliquid  {j^usmddi,  or  tale)  quod  ad  rem  pertlneat,  Now  you 
date  something  which  belongs  to  the  subject  (i.  e.,  something  of  such  a  charac- 
ter as  to  belong,  etc.).  Cic.  Sunt  qui  putent,  there  are  some  who  think.  Cic. 
Nemo  est  qui  non  ciipiat,  there  is  no  one  tcho  does  not  desire^  i.  e.,  such  as  not 
to  desire.  Cic. 

1.  In  the  same  way  quod,  or  a  relative  particle,  Hhi,  unde,  quo,  cur,  etc.,  with 
the Subjunciive,\9  used  after  est,  there  is  reason, non  est,nihil  e«f,  there  is  no  reason, 
quid  est,  what  reason  is  there  ?  non  hdbeo,  nihil  hdbeo,  I  have  no  reason: 

Est  quod  gaudeas.  There  is  reason  why  you  should  rejoice,  or  so  that  youmay. 
Plaut  Non  est  quod  crCdas,  There  is  no  reason  why  you  shotdd  believe.  Sen. 
Nihil  habeo,  quod  inciisem  seuectutem,  /  have  no  reason  why  /should  accuse  old 
age.  Cic. 

2.  Indicative  afteb  Indefinite  Antecedent. — A  Relative  clause  after  an 
indefloite  antecedent  also  takes  the  Indicative,  when  the  fact  itself  is  to  be  made 
prominent : 

Sunt  qui  non  audent  dicere,  TTiere  are  some  who  (actually)  do  not  dare  to 
apeak.  Cic.  Multa  sunt,  quae  dici  possnnt,  TTiere  are  many  things  which  may  be 
said.  Cic    So  also  clauses  with  Rel.  particles.    See  1  above. 

In  poetry  and  late  prose  the  Indicative  often  follows  sunt  qui : 

Sunt  quos  juvat,  there  are  some  whom  it  delights.  Hor. 

8.  Restrictive  Clauses  with  quod,  as  quod  sciam,  as  far  as  I  know ;  quod 
mfmlndrim,  as  far  as  I  remember,  etc.,  take  the  subjunctive. 

II.  Relative  clauses  after  Unus,  Solus.,  and  the  like,  take  the 
suhjunctive: 

SSpientia  est  una,  quae  moestitiam  pellat,  Wisdom  is  the  only  thing 
which  dispels  sadness  (such  as  to  dispel).  Cic.  S5li  centum  ferant  qui  creSri 
possent,  There  were  only  one  hundred  who  could  be  ajapointed  (such  that 
they  could  be).  Liv. 

III.  Relative  clauses  after  Dignus,  Indignus,  Idoneus,  and  Ap- 
tus  take  the  suhjunctive : 

FSbulae  dignae  sunt,  quae  ISgantur,  The  fables  are  worthy  to  be  read 
(that  they  should  be  read).  Cic.  Rufum  Caesar  idoneum  judlcav6rat  quem 
mittfiret,  Caesar  had  judged  Rufus  a  suitable  person  to  send  (whom  he  might 
gend).     Caes. 


232  SUBJimCTIVE. 

rV.  Relative  clauses  after  Comparatives  with  Quam  take  the 
subjunctive : 

Damna  majora  sunt  quam  quae  {  =  ut  ea)  aestlmari  possint,  The  losses 
are  too  great  to  he  estimated  (greater  than  so  that  they  can  be).  Liv. 

IV.  Subjunctive  op  Condition. 

502.  Every  conditional  sentence  consists  of  two  dis- 
tinct parts,  expressed  or  understood, — ^the  Condition  and 
the  Conclusion: 

Si  nggem,  mentiar,  If  I  should  deny  it,  I  should  speak  falsely.  Cic. 
Here  si  negem  is  the  condition,  and  mentiar^  the  conclusion. 


EULE  XLI.— Subjunctive  of  Condition. 

503.  The  Subjunctive  of  Condition  is  used, 

I.  With  dum,  mc5do,  dummbdo: 

Manent  ingenia,  modo  permaneat  industria.  Menial  powers  remain^  if 
only  industry  remains,  Cic. 

II.  With  ac  si,  ut  si,  quasi,  quam  si,  tanquam,  tanquam  si, 
vSlut,  velut  si: 

Crudelitatem,  vglut  si  adesset,  horrebant.  They  shuddered  at  his  cruelty^ 
as  if  he  were  present.  Caes. 

III.  Sometimes  with  si,  nisi,  ni,  sin,  qui  =  si  is,  si  quis : 

Dies  def  iciat,  si  vglim  numerare,  The  day  wo^dd  fail  me,  if  I  should 
vnsh  to  recount.  Cic.  Improbe  feceris,  nisi  monueris,  You  would  do  wrong, 
if  you  should  not  give  warning.  Cic.  Si  voluisset,  dimicasset.  If  he  had 
wished,  he  would  have  fought.  Nep. 

1.  Si  Omitted. — Two  clauses  without  any  conjunction  some- 
times have  the  force  of  a  conditional  sentence : 

N6gat  quis,  n§go,  Does  any  one  deny,  I  deny.  Ter.  R6ges  me,  nihil  re- 
spondeam.  Should  you  ask  me,  I  should  make  no  reply.  Cic.  See  also  Imper* 
ative,  535.  2. 

2.  Condition  Supplied. — The  condition  may  be  supphed, 

1)  "Rj  Participles:  Non  pStestis,  vSluptate  omnia  dirigentes  {si  dirigl- 
tis),  rStingre  virtutem,  Tou  cannot  retain  your  manhood,  if  you  arrange  all 
things  with  reference  to  pleasure.  Cic. 

2)  By  Oblique  Cases:  Nfimo  sine  spe  (nisi  spem  haberet)  se  offerret  ad 
mortem,  No  one  without  a  hope  (if  he  had  not  a  hope)  would  expose  himself 
to  deaih.  Cic. 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES.  233 

8.  Irony.— The  condition  is  sometimes  ironical,  especially  with  nisi 
vero,  nisi  forte  with  the  Indicative,  and  with  quasi^  quasi  viro  with  the 
Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive : 

Nisi  forte  insanit,  unless  perhaps  Tie  is  insane.  Cic.  Qu2,si  vCro  nScesse 
«it,  as  if  indeed  it  were  necessary.  Caes. 

4.  It  A— SI,  ETC. — Ita — si,  so — if,  means  anly—ij  Siquidem,  if  indeed, 
Bometimes  has  nearly  the  force  of  since. 

5.  Et  omitted. — See  587.  I.  6. 

504.  Force  of  Tenses. — In  conditional  sentences  the 
Present  and  Perfect  tenses  represent  the  supposition  as  not 
at  all  improbable,  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  represent 
it  as  contrary  to  the  fact.  See  examples  above.  See  also 
476  to  478. 

1.  Present  for  Imperfect. — The  Present  Subjunctive  is  sometimes  used 
for  the  Imperfect,  when  a  condition,  in  itself  contrary  to  reality,  is  still  con- 
ceived of  as  possible  : 

Tu  si  hie  sis,  Sllter  sentias,  If  you  were  the  one  (or,  should  be),  you  would 
ihink  differently.  Ter. 

2.  Imperfect  for  Pluperfect. — The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  is  some- 
times used  for  the  Pluperfect,  with  the  nice  distinction  that  it  contemplates 
the  supposed  action  as  going  on,  not  as  completed  : 

Num  Opimium,  si  turn  esses,  tSmfirarium  civem  putares  ?  Would  you 
think  Opimius  an  audacious  citizen,  if  you  were  living  at  that  time  (Pluperf. 
would  you  have  thought — if  you  had  lived)  ?  Cic. 

605.  DuM,  MoDO,  DuMMODO. — Dum,  modo,  and  dum- 
m(Sdo,  131  conditions,  have  the  force  of — if  only ^  provided 
that,  or  with  ne,  if  only  not,  provided  that  not : 

Dum  res  mfineant,  verba  fingant.  Let  them  make  words,  if  only  the  facts 
remain.  Cic.  Mddo  permaneat  industria,  if  only  industry  remains.  Cic. 
Dummddo  rfepellat  pgriculum,  provided  he  may  avert  danger.  Cic.  M6do  ne 
laudarent,  if  Only  they  did  not  praise.  Cic. 

When  not  used  in  conditions,  these  conjanctious  often  admit  the  indicative : 

Dum  leges  vigi-bant,  while  the  laws  were  in  force.  Cic. 

503.  Ac  SI,  Ut  si.  Quasi,  etc — Ac  si,  ut  si,  quam  si, 
quasi,  tanquam,  tanquam  si,  velut,  velut  si,  involve  an 
ellipsis  of  the  real  conclusion  : 

Mlsfirior  es,  quam  si  6culos  non  hSbfires,  You  are  more  unhappy  than 
(esses,  you  would  be)  if  you  had  not  eyes.  Cic.  Crudelitatem,  v61ut  si  ades- 
set,  horrebant,  They  shuddered  at  his  cruelty  as  (they  would;  if  he  were  pres- 
ent. Caes.  Ut  si  in  suam  rem  filiena  convertant,  as  if  they  should  appropri- 
ate others  possessions  to  their  own  use.  Cic.  Tanquam  audiant,  as  if  they 
may  hear.  Sen. 

Ceu  and  SleHU  are  sometimes  used  in  the  same  way : 

Ceu  bella  f6rent,  as  if  there  were  wars.  Vlrg.  Slcuti  audlrl  pooBent,  as  If  they 
eould  be  heard.  SalL 


234  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

507.  Si,  Nisi,  Ni,  Sin,  Qui. — The  Latin  distinguishes 
three  distinct  forms  of  tlie  conditional  sentence  with  si, 

msi,  ni,  sin : 

I.  Indicative  in  both  Clauses. 
II.  Subjunctive,  Present  or  Perfect,  in  both  Clauses. 
in.  Subjunctive,   Imperfect    or    Pluperfect,   in   both 
Clauses. 

508.  First  Form. — Indicative  in  both  Clauses. — This 
form  assumes  the  supposed  case  as  real,  basing  upon  it 
any  statement  which  would  be  admissible,  if  it  were  a 
known  fact : 

Si  haec  civitas  est,  civis  sum  ego,  If  this  is  a  state,  I  am  a  citizen.  Cic. 
Si  non  licebat,  non  necesse  erat,  Jf  it  toa^  7wi  lawful,  it  was  not  necessary. 
Cic.  Dolorem  si  non  potero  frangere,  occultabo.  If  I  shall  not  be  able  to 
overcome  sorrow,  I  will  conceal  it.  Cic.  Parvi  sunt  foris  arma,  nisi  est 
consilium  domi.  Arms  are  of  little  value  abroad,  unless  there  is  wisdom  at 
home.  Cic. 

1.  Condition. — The  condition  is  introduced,  when  aflBrmative,  by  si, 
with  or  without  other  particles,  as  quidem,  modo,  etc.,  and  when  negative, 
by  si  non,  nisi,  ni.  The  time  may  be  either  present,  past,  ov future.  See 
examples  above. 

2.  Conclusion. — The  conclusion  may  take  the  form  of  a  command  : 
Si  peccavi,  ignosce,  If  I  have  erred,  pardon  me.  Cic. 

3.  Si  NON,  Nisi. — Si  non  and  nisi  are  often  used  without  any  percepti- 
ble difference  of  meaning;  but  strictly  si  non  introduces  the  negative  con- 
dition on  which  the  conclusion  depends,  while  nisi  introduces  a  qualifica- 
tion or  an  exception.  Thus  in  the  second  example  above  the  meaning  is. 
If  it  was  not  lawful,  it  follows  that  it  was  not  necessary,  while  in  the  fourth 
the  meaning  is.  Arms  are  of  little  'value  abroad,  except  when  there  is  wisdom 
at  home. 

509.  Second  Form. — Subjunctive  Present  or  Perfect  in 
both  Clauses. — This  form  assumes  the  condition  2l^ possible: 

Ilaec  si  tecum  patria  loquatur,  nonne  impetrare  debeat,  If  your  country 
should  speak  thus  with  you,  ouyht  she  not  to  obtain  her  request?  Cic.  Im- 
probe  feceris,  nisi  monueris,  You  woidd  do  wrong,  if  you  should  not  give 
warning.  Cic.     See  also  examples  under  the  Rule,  503  ;  also  486.  7. 

1.  "When  dependent  upon  a  Historical  tense,  the  Present  and  Perfect  are 
of  course  generally  changed  to  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  by  the  law  for 
Sequence  of  tenses  (480). 

Mfetuit  ne,  si  iret,  retrShSrgtur,  He  feared  lest  if  he  shovld  go,  he  mighi 
ie  brought  back.  Liv. 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES.  235 

510.  Third  Form. — Subjunctive  Imperfect  or  Pluper- 
fect in  both  Clauses. — This  form  assumes  the  supposed  case 
as  contrary  to  the  reality^  and  simply  states  what  would 
have  been  the  result,  if  the  condition  had  been  fulfilled : 

Sapientia  non  expeteretur,  si  nihil  efficeret,  Wisdom  would  not  be 
sought  (as  it  is),  if  it  accomplished  nothing.  Cic.  Si  optima  tenere  poss6- 
mus,  baud  sSne  consIHo  egeremus,  If  we  were  able  to  secure  the  highest 
good,  we  should  not  indeed  need  counsel.  Cic.  Si  voluisset,  dlmlcasset,  If 
he  had  wished,  he  would  have  fought.  Nep,  Nunquam  fibisset,  nisi  sibi 
viam  muulvisset,  He  would  never  have  gone,  if  he  had  not  prepared  for 
himaelf  a  way.  Cic.     See  also  486.  Y. 

1.  Here  the  Imperfect  relates  to  Present  time,  as  in  the  first  and  second 
examples :  the  Pluperfect  to  Past  time,  as  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples. 

2.  In  the  Periphrastic  forms  in  rus  and  dus  and  in  expressions  of  Duty, 
Necessity,  and  Ability,  the  Perfect  and  Imperfect  Indicative  sometimes  occur 
in  the  conclusion. 

Quid  futurum  fuit,  si  plebs  %!tSri  coepta  esset,  What  would  have  been 
the  result,  if  the  plebeians  had  begun  to  be  agitated  f  Liv.     See  also  512.  2. 

1)  When  the  context,  irrespective  of  the  condition,  requires  the  Subjunctive, 
the  tense  remains  unchanged  without  reference  to  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb  : 

Adeo  est  inopia  coactxis  ut,  nisi  timuisset,  Galliam  rCpfititurus  fuerit,  lie  was  so 
pressed  by  want  that  if  he  had  not  feared,  he  would  have  returned  to  Gaul.  Liv. 

Here  rfpHltiirus  fxUrit  is  in  the  Subj.  not  because  it  is  in  a  conditional  sentence, 
but  because  it  is  the  Subj.  of  Result  with  ut;  but  it  is  in  the  Perfect,  because,  il  it 
■were  not  dependent,  the  Perfect  Indicative  would  have  been  used. 

611.  Mixed  Foems. — The  Latin  sometimes  unites  a 
condition  belonging  to  one  of  the  three  regular  forms  with 
a  conclusion  belonging  to  another,  thus  producing  certain 
Mixed  Forms. 

I.  The  Indicative  sometimes  occurs  in  the  Condition  with  the 
Subjunctive  in  the  Conclusion,  but  here  the  Subjunctive  is  gener- 
ally dependent  not  upon  the  condition,  but  upon  the  very  nature 
of  tlie  thought: 

PSream,  si  pStfirunt,  May  I  perish  (subj.  of  desire,  487),  if  they  shall 
be  able.  Cic.  Quid  timeam,  si  beStus  fiiturus  sum.  Why  should  I  fear 
(486.  II.),  if  I  am  to  be  happy?  Cic. 

II.  The  Subjunctive  sometimes  occurs  in  the  Condition  with 
the  Indicative  in  the  Conclusion.  Here  the  Indicative  often  gives 
the  effect  of  reality  to  the  conclusion,  even  though  in  fact  depend- 
ent upon  contingencies;  but  see  also  512 : 

Dies  def Iciet,  si  vfelim  causam  dCfend§re,  The  day  would  (will)  fail 
me,  if  I  should  wish  to  defend  the  cause.  Cic.  Vic6ramus  nisi  rScfipisset 
AntSnium,  We  had  conquered,  had  he  not  received  Antony.  Cic. 


236  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

1.  The  Ikiture  Tndicati've  ia  often  thus  used  in  consequence  of  its  near  relation- 
ship in  force  to  tlie  Subjunctive,  as  wliatever  is  Future  is  more  or  less  contingent. 
See.  first  example. 

2.  The  Historical  tenses,  especially  the  Pluperfect,  are  sometimes  used,  for  efect, 
to  represent  as  an  actual  fact  something  which  is  shown  by  the  context  never  to  have 
become  fully  so,  as  in  the  last  example. 

8.  Conditional  sentences  made  up  partly  of  the  second  form  (509)  and  partly  of 
the  third  are  rare. 

512.  Subjunctive  and  Indicative. — The  combination 
of  the  Subjunctive  in  the  Condition  with  the  Indicative  in 
the  Conclusion  is  often  only  apparent.     Thus 

1.  When  the  truth  of  the  conclusion  is  not  in  reality  affected  by  the 
condition,  as  when  si  has  the  force  of  even  if,  although  : 

Si  hoc  placeat,  tSmen  volant,  Even  if  (although)  this  pleases  them,  they 
still  wish.  Cic. 

2.  When  that  which  stands  as  the  conclusion  is  such  only  in  appear- 
ance, the  real  conclusion  being  understood.     This  occurs 

1)  With  the  Indicative  of  Debeo,  Possum,  and  the  like  : 

Quern,  si  ullain  te  pifitas  esset,  colSre  debebas,  Whom  you  ought  to  liave 
honored  (and  would  have  honored),  if  there  were  any  filial  affection  in  you. 
Cic.  Deleri  exercltus  potuit,  si  persecuti  victores  essent,  The  army  mvjht 
have  been  destroyed  (and  would  have  been),  if  the  victors  had  pursued.  Liv. 

2)  With  the  Imperfect  and  Perfect  Indicative  of  other  verbs,  especial- 
ly if  in  a  periphrastic  conjugation  or  accompanied  by  Paene  or  Prope : 

Rfelicturi  agros  6rant,  nisi  littferas  misisset,  TTiey  were  about  to  leave  their 
lands  (and  would  have  done  so),  had  he  not  sent  a  letter.  Cic.  Pons  iter 
paene  hostibus  d6dit,  ni  unus  vir  fuisset,  TJie  bridge  almost  furnished  apas- 
eage  to  the  enemy  (and  would  have  done  so),  had  there  not  been  oneman.  Liv. 

613.  Relative  involving  Condition. — The  relative 
takes  the  subjunctive  when  it  is  equivalent  to  si  or  durn 
with  the  subjunctive : 

Errat  longe,  qui  credat,  etc.,  He  greatly  errs  who  supposes,  etc.,  i.  e., 
if  or  provided  any  one  supposes,  he  greatly  errs.  Ter.  Haec  qui  videat, 
cogatur,  Jf  any  one  should  see  the'ie  things,  he  would  be  compelled.  Cic. 


V.  Subjunctive  in  Concessions. 

514.  A  concessive  clause  is  one  which  concedes  or 
admits  something,  generally  introduced  in  English  by 
though  or  although : 

Quamquam  intelligunt,  though  they  understand.  Cic. 


CONCESSIONS.  237 

EXILE  XLII-Subjanctiye  of  Concession. 

615.  The  Subjunctive  of  Concession  is  used, 

I.  With  licet,  quamvis,  quantiunvis,— ut,  ne,  quum  (although): 
Licet  irrideat,  plus  tamen  rStio  v^lebit,  Though  he  may  deride^  reason 

mil  yet  avail  more.  Cic.     Ut  desint  vires,  tamen  est  laudauda  voluntas, 
Though  the  strength  faUa^  still  the  will  should  be  approved.  Ovid. 

II.  With  qui  =  quum  (licet)  is,  quum  Sgo,  etc.,  though  he: 
Absolvite  Verrem,  qui  (quum  is)  se  fateatur  pScunias  cgpisse,  Acquit 

Verres,  th<yugh  he  confesses  (who  may  confess)  that  he  has  accepted  money. 
Cic. 

III.  Generally  with  etsi,  t^lmetsi,  ^tiamsi : 

Quod  sentiunt,  etsi  optimum  sit,  tamen  non  audent  dicere.  They  do 
not  dare  to  state  what  they  think,  even  if  (though)  it  be  most  excellent.  Cic. 

516.  Concessive  Clauses  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes  : 

I.  Concessive  Clauses  with  quamquam  in  the  best  prose 
generally  take  the  Indicative  : 

Quamquam  intelligunt,  tSmen  nunquam  dicunt,  Though  they  understand^ 
they  never  speak.  Cic. 

1.  The  Subjunctive  may  of  course  follow  quamquam,  whenever  the  thought 
itself,  irrespective  of  the  concessive  character  of  the  clause,  requires  that  mood  (485). 

2.  The  Subjunctive,  even  in  the  best  prose,  sometimes  occurs  with  quamquam 
where  we  should  expect  the  Indicative :  Quamquam  ne  id  quidem  suspicionem  habu- 
^rlt,  T/urugh  not  even  that  gave  rise  to  any  siisjncion.  Cic. 

8.  In  poetry  and  some  of  the  later  prose,  the  subjunctive  with  quamquam  is  not 
uncommon.    In  Tacitus  it  is  the  prevailing  construction. 

4.  Quarnqitam  and  etsi  sometimes  have  the  force  of  yet,  but  yet,  and  yet: 
Quamquam  quid  16quor,  A7id  yet  w^i  do  I  sayt  Cic. 

II.  Concessive  Clauses  with  licet,  quamvis,  quantumv is, 
— ut,  ne,  quum  (although); — qui  =  quum  (or  licet)  is,  ego, 
tu,  etc.,  take  the  Subjunctive  : 

Non  tu  possis,  qnanturavis  excellas,  You  would  not  he  able,  however  much 
(although)  yow  excel.  Cic.    Ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  m&lum  certe  est,. 
Though  pain  may  not  be  the  greatest  evil,  it  is  certainly  an  evil.  Cic.  See  518. 

I.  Ut  and  Ne. — This  concessive  use  of  ut  aud  ne  may  readily  be  ex- 
plained by  supplying  some  verb  like  fac  or  sine :  thus,  ut  disint  vires  (5ii 
I.)  =z/ac  or  sineut  desint  vires,  make  or  grant  that  strength  fails.    See  489. 

The  Concessive  Particle  is  sometimes  omitted : 

Sed  hibeat,  timen,  But  grant  that  it  has  it,  yet.  Cic. 

Ut — SIC  or  ita,  as— so,  though — yet,  does  not  require  the  subjunctive. 


238  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

2.  QuAMVis  AND  QcANTUMvis. — Thcse  are  strictly  adverbs,  in  the  sense 
of  however  much,  but  they  generally  give  to  the  clause  the  force  of  a  conces- 
sion. When  used  with  their  simple  adverbial  force  to  qualify  adjectives, 
they  do  not  affect  the  mood  of  the  clause  :  quamvis  multi,  however  many. 

3.  Mood  with  Quamvis. — In  Cicero  and  the  best  prose,  quamvis  takea 
the  Subjunctive  almost  without  exception,  generally  also  in  Livy  and  Nepos; 
but  in  the  poets  and  later  prose  writers  it  often  admits  the  Indicative  : 

Erat  dignitate  regia,  quamvis  carebat  nomine.  He  was  of  royal  dignity^ 
though  he  was  without  the  name.  Nep. 

4.  Relative  in  Concessions. — The  relative  denoting  concession  is  equiv- 
alent to  licet,  or  quum,  in  the  sense  of  though,  with  a  Demonstrative  or  Per- 
sonal pronoun,  and  takes  the  Subjunctive  for  the  same  reason  :  qui  =  licet 
(quum)  is,  licet  ego,  tu,  etc.    See  examples  under  the  Rule,  515. 

III.  Concessive  Clauses  with  the  compounds  of  si :  etsi, 
etiamsi,  tdmetsi  in  the  use  of  Moods  and  Tenses  conform 
to  the  rule  for  conditional  clauses  with  si  : 

Etsi  nihil  habeat  in  se  gloria,  tamen  virtutem  sSquitur,  Though  glory 
may  not  possess  anything  in  itself,  yet  it  follows  virtue.  Cic.  Etiamsi  mors 
oppStenda  esset,  even  if  death  ought  to  he  met.  Cic. 

VI.  Subjunctive  of  Cause  and  Time. 
EXILE  XLIII.— Subjunctive  of  Cause. 

517.  The  Subjunctive  of  Cause  or  Eeason  is  used, 

I.  With  quum  (cum),  since ;  qui  =  quum  is,  etc. : 

Quum  vita  metus  plena  sit,  since  life  is  full  of  fear.  Cic.  Quae  quum 
Ita  sint,  perge,  Since  these  things  are  so,  proceed.  Cic.  0  vis  veritatis, 
quae  {quum  ed)  se  defendat,  0  the  force  of  truth,  since  it  defends  itself.  Cic. 

II.  With  quod,  quia,  qubnisim,  quando,  to  introduce  a  reason  on 
another's  authority : 

Socrates  accflsatus  est,  quod  corrumperet  juventutem.  Socrates  was  ac- 
cused, because  (on  the  alleged  ground  that)  he  corrupted  the  youth.  Quint. 

Causal  Glauses  with  Quum  and  Qui. 

518.  Quum. — Quum  takes  the  Subjunctive  when  it  de- 
notes, 

I.  Cause  or  Concession  : 

Quum  sint  in  nobis  ratio,  prtidentia,  since  there  is  in  us  reason  and  pru- 
dence. Cic.  Phocion  fuit  pauper,  quum  divltisslmus  esse  posset,  Fhocion 
was  poor,  though  he  might  have  been  very  rich.  Nep.    See  also  515. 


CAUSE  AND  TIME.  239 

II.  Time  with  the  aocessory  notion  of  Cause  or  Con- 
cession : 

Quum  dImlcSret,  occisus  est,  When  he  engaged  battle,  he  was  slain.  Nep. 
ZfinOnem,  quum  AthCnis  essetn,  audiebam  frSquenter,  /  often  heard  Zeno, 
ich&n  I  was  at  Athens.  Cic. 

1.  Quum  in  Narration.— ^w«m  with  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Sut 
junctive  is  very  frequent  in  narration  even  in  temporal  clauses.  See  exam 
pies  under  II.  above. 

Thla  use  of  Quum  with  the  Subjunctive  may  in  most  instances  be  readily  ex 
plained  by  the  fact  that  it  involves  Cause  as  well  as  Time.  Thus  quum  dlmlcdret, 
In  the  first  example,  not  only  states  the  time  of  the  action— occl*u«  est,  but  also  its 
cat««  or  occasion :  the  engagement  was  the  occasion  of  his  death.  So  with  quum 
essem,  as  presence  in  Athens  was  an  indispensable  condition  of  hearing  Zeuo.  But  in 
•ome  instances  the  notion  of  Cause  or  Concession  is  not  at  all  apparent. 

2.  QuL'M  WITH  Tempus,  ETC, — Quum  with  the  Subjunctive  is  sometimes 
used  to  characterize  a  period  : 

Id  saeculum  quum  plena  Graecia  po6tarum  esset,  that  age  when  (such 
that)  Greece  was  full  of  poets.  Cic.  Erit  tempus,  quum  d6sid6res,  the  time 
will  com^,  when  you  will  desire.  Cic.  So  without  tempus,  etc. :  Fuit  quum 
arbitrSrer,  there  was  (a  time)  when  /thought.  Cic. 

3.  QccM  WITH  Indicative. —  Quum  denotiug  time  merely,  with  pcrhapi 
a  few  exceptions  in  narration,  takes  the  Indicative : 

Quum  quiescunt,  prdbant,  While  they  are  quiet,  they  approve.  Cic.  PS- 
ruit,  quum  Decease  6rat,  He  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary.  Cic. 

519.  Qui,  Cause  or  Reason. — A  Relative  clause  de- 
noting cause  or  reason,  is  equivalent  to  a  Causal  clause  with 
Quum,  and  takes  the  Subjunctive  for  the  same  reason: 

0  fortunate  adolescens,  qui  {quum  tu)  tuae  virtutis  Homerum  praec5- 
nem  inveneris,  0  fortunate  youth,  since  you  (lit.  who)  have  obtained  Homer 
09  the  herald  of  your  valor.  Cic. 

1.  Equivalents. — In  such  clauses,  qui  is  equivalent  to  quum  ego,  quum 
tu,  quum  is,  etc. 

2.  Indicative. — When  the  statement  is  to  be  viewed  as  a  fact  rather  than 
as  a  reason,  the  Indicative  is  used : 

H&beo  sfenectilti  grStiam,  quae  mihi  sermonis  Svlditatem  auxit,  I  cherish 
gratitude  to  old  age,  which  has  increased  my  love  of  conversation.  Cic. 

3.  Qui  with  Conjunctions. — When  a  conjunction  accompanies  the  rela- 
tive, the  mood  varies  with  the  conjunction.     Thus, 

1)  The  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  with  quum,  quippe,  ut,  utpote: 
Quae  quum  Ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so.  Cic.     Quippe  qui  blandiS- 

tur,  since  h^  flatters.  Cic.    Ut  qui  c61oni  essent,  since  they  were  colonists.  Cic. 
Bnt  the  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  to  give  prominence  to  the  fact. 

2)  The  Indicative  is  generally  used  with  quia,  quoniam: 

Quae  quia  certa  esse  non  possunt,  since  these  things  cannot  be  sure.  Clot 
Qui  qudniam  intelllgi  nSluit,  since  he  did  not  wish  to  be  understood.  Cic. 


240  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Causal  Clauses  with  Quod,  Quia,  Quoniam,  Quando. 

620.  Quod,  quia,  quoniam,  and  quando  generally  take, 

1.  The  Indicativb  to  assign  a  reason  positively/  on  one's 
own  authority : 

Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  since  a  thanksgiving  has  been  decreed. 
Cic.     Gaude  quod  spectant  te,  Rejoice  that  (because)  they  behold  you.  Hor. 

II.  The  Subjunctive  to  assign  a  reason  doubtfully,  or 
on  another* s  authority : 

Aristides  nonne  expulsus  est  patria,  quod  Justus  esset,  Was  not  Arts- 
tides  banished  because  (on  the  alleged  ground  that)  he  was  just  ?  Cic. 

1.  Quod  with  Dico,  wtc.—DIco  andputo  are  often  in  the  Subjunctive 
instead  of  the  verb  depending  upon  them  : 

Quod  se  bellum  gestures  dicerent  =  quod  bellura  gesturi  essent,  ut  dic6» 
bant,  because  they  were  about,  as  they  said,  to  wage  war.  Caes. 

2.  Clauses  with  Quod  Unconnected.    See  554.  IV. 

3.  NoN  Quo,  etc. — JVon  quo,  non  quod,  non  quin,  rarely  non  quia,  also 
qua7n  quod,  etc.,  are  used  with  the  Subjunctive  to  denote  that  something  was 
not  the  true  reason  : 

Non  quo  haberem  quod  scriberem,  not  because  (that)  I  had  anything  to 
write.  Cic.  Non  quod  doleant,  not  because  they  are  pained.  Cic.  Quia  tjc- 
quiv6rat  quam  quod  ignoraret,  because  he  had  been  unable,  rather  than  because 
he  did  not  Jcnow,  Liv. 

4.  Potential  Subjunctive.    See  485  and  486. 

RULE  XLIV.— Time  with  Cause. 

521.  The  Subjunctive  of  Time  with  the  accessory 
notion  of  Cause  or  Purpose  is  used, 

I.  With  dum,  donee,  quoad,  until: 

Exspectas  dum  dicat,  You  are  waiting  till  he  speaks,  i.  e.,  that  he  may 
speak.  Cic.  Ea  continebis  quoad  te  videam,  You  will  keep  them  tUl  I  see 
you.  Cic. 

II.  With  antequam,  priusquam,  before,  before  that : 
AntSquam  de  re  publica  dicam,  exponam  consilium,  I  will  set  forth  my 

plan  before  I  (can)  speak  of  the  republic,  i.  e.,  preparatory  to  speaking 
of  the  republic.  Cic,     Priusquam  incipias,  before  you  begin.  Sail. 

1.  Explanation. — Here  the  temporal  clause  involves  purpose  as  well  as 
Ume  :  dum  dicat  is  nearly  equivalent  to  ut  dicat,  which  is  also  often  used 
after  exspecto.  Antequam  dicam  is  nearly  equivalent  to  ut  postea  dicam: 
I  will  set  forth  my  views,  that  I  may  afterwards  speak  of  the  republic 


CAUSE    A]SD   TIME.  241 

2.  With  othbi  Conjunctions. — The  Subjunctive  may  of  coiyse  be  used 
fa  any  temporal  clause,  when  the  thought,  irrespective  of  the  temporal  par- 
ticle, requires  that  mood  ;  see  48f).  III. 

Ubi  res  poscSret,  whenever  the  case  migJU  require.  Liv. 

622.  DuM,  DoNEC,  and  Quoad  take 

I.  The  Indicative^ — (1)  in  the  sense  of  while,  as  long 
flf^,  and  (2)  in  the  sense  of  until,  if  the  action  is  viewed  as 
an  actual  fact: 

Dum  leges  vigebant,  as  long  as  the  laws  were  in  force.  Cic.  Quoad 
rSnuutiatum  est,  until  it  was  (actually)  announced.  Nep. 

II.  The  Subjunctive,  when  the  action  is  viewed  not  so 
much  as  a  fact  as  something  desired  or  proposed : 

Differant,  dum  defervescat  Ira,  Zd  them  defer  it,  till  their  anger  cools, 
i.  e.,  that  it  may  cool.  Cic.     See  also  examples  under  the  rule. 

1.  DoNEC,  IN  Tacitus,  generally  takes  the  Subjunctive  : 

Rhenus  servat  viSlentiam  cursus,  donee  Oceano  misceatur,  The  Rhine 
preserves  the  rapidity  of  its  current^  till  it  mingles  with  the  ocean.  Tac. 

2.  DoNEC,  IN  LivT,  occurs  with  the  Subjunctive  even  in  the  sense  of 
while,  but  with  the  accessory  notion  oi cause: 

Nihil  trfepidabant  douce  ponte  Sggrentur,  They  did  not  fear  at  allwhiU 
(and  because)  they  were  driven  on  the  bridge.  Liv. 

623.  Antequam  and  Peiusquam  generally  take, 

I.  The  Indicative,  when  they  denote  mere  priority  of 
time: 

Priusquam  lucet,  adsunt,  They  are  present  before  it  is  light.  Cic.  An- 
tSquam  in  Siciliam  veni,  before  I  came  into  Sicily.  Cic. 

II.  The  Subjunctive,  when  they  denote  a  dependence 
of  one  event  upon  another.     Thus, 

1.  In  any  Tense,  when  the  accessory  notion  of  purpose  or  cause  is  in- 
volved : 

Priusquam  inclpias,  consulto  dpus  est,  Before  you  begin  there  is  need  of 
deliberation,  i.  e.,  as  preparatory  to  your  beginning.  Sail.  Tempestas  min£- 
tur,  ant6quam  surgat,  The  tempest  threatens,  before  it  rises,  i.  e.,  the  threaten- 
ing of  the  tempest  naturally  precedes  its  rising.  Sen. 

2.  In  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  as  the  regular  construction  in  nanr- 
raiion,  because  the  one  event  is  generally  treated  as  the  occasion  or  natu- 
ral antecedent  of  the  other.     See  also  471.  4. 

AntSquam  urbem  cdpfirent,  before  they  took  the  city.  Liv.  Priusquam 
de  meo  adventu  audire  pStuissent,  in  Mac6d6niam  perrexi,  Before  they  wer§ 
mble  to  Icear  of  my  approach,  I  went  into  Macedonia.  Cic. 

8.  Pridie  quam  takes  the  same  moods  as  Priusquam. 


242  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

1)  Indicative  ob  Sxj^jvnctixe.— With.  antSquam  and  priusguam,  the  Indior- 
tive  and  Subjunctive  are  sometimes  used  without  any  apparent  diflFerecce  of  meaning, 
but  the  Subjunctive  probably  denotes  a  closer  connection  between  the  two  events: 

Ante  de  incommodis  dico,  pauca  dicenda,  Before  I  (actually)  speak  of  disad- 
vantages^ a  few  things  should  he  mentioned.  Cic.  Antoquam  de  re  publica  dicam, 
exponam  consi/ium,  Before  I  speak  of  the  republic,  I  will  set  forth  my  plan.  Cic. 

2)  Ante— QUAM,  Peius— quam.— The  two  parts  of  which  ant^uam,  priusquam, 
and  postquam  are  compounded  are  often  separated,  so  that  ante,  prius,  or  post 
stands  in  the  principal  clause  and  quam  in  the  subordinate  clause: 

.        Paucis  ante  diubus,  quam  Syraciisae  caperentur,  a  few  days  before  Syracuse 
toos  taken.  Liv.    See  Tmesis,  704.  IV.  3. 

Vn.  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Questions. 

524.  A  clause  which  involves  a  question  without  di- 
rectly  asking  it,  is  called  an  indirect  or  dependent  question. 


RULE  XL  v.— Indirect  auestions. 
525.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  Indirect  Questions : 

Quid  dies  fSrat  incertum  est,  What  a  day  may  bring  forth  is  uncer- 
tain. Cic.  Quaeritur,  cur  doctissimi  homines  dissentiant,  It  is  a  question^ 
why  the  most  learned  men  disagree.  Cic.  Quaesieras,  nonne  piitarem,  yo^ 
had  asked  whether  I  did  not  think.  Cic.  Qualis  sit  animus,  animus  nescit, 
The  soul  knows  not  what  the  soul  is.  Cic. 

1.  With  Interrogatives. — Indirect  or  Dependent  questions,  like  those 
not  dependent,  are  introduced  by  interrogative  words :  quid,  cur,  nonnCf 
qualis,  etc. ;  rarely  by  si,  sive,  sen,  whether  j  ut,  how.    See  examples  above. 

2.  Substantive  Force. — Indirect  questions  are  used  substantively,  and 
generally,  though  not  always,  supply  the  place  of  subjects  orobjects  of  verbs. 
But  an  Accusative,  referring  to  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  of 
the  question,  is  sometimes  inserted  after  the  leading  verb. 

Ego  ilium  nescio  qui  fuirit,  I  do  not  know  (him),  who  he  was.  Ter. 

3.  Direct  and  Indirect. — An  indi?'ect  question  may  be  readily  changed 
to  a  direct  or  independent  question. 

Thus  the  direct  question  involved  in  the  first  example  is:  Quid  dies  fir  et. 
What  will  a  day  bring  forth?  So  in  the  second:  Cur  doctis^mi  h^nlnes dissenti- 
tmt,  Why  do  the  most  learned  men  disagree  ? 

4.  Subjunctive  Omitted. — After  nescio  quis,  I  know  not  who  =  quldam, 
some  one ;  nescio  qucmwdo,  I  know  not  how,  etc.,  as  also  after  mirum  quan- 
tum, it  is  wonderful  how  much  =  wonderfully  much,  very  much,  there  is  an 
ellipsis  of  the  Subjunctive : 

Nescio  quid  Snimus  praesagit,  The  mind  forebodes,  I  know  not  what  (it 
forebodes,  praesdyiat,  understood).  Ter,  Id  mirum  quantum  profuit,  This 
profited,  it  is  wonderful  how  much,  i.  e.,  it  wonderfully  profited.  Liv. 


INDIRECT  QUESTIONS.  243 

5.  Indirect  Questions  Distinguished.— Indirect  Questions  must  be  care- 
fully distinguished  from  certain  similar  forms.    Thus, 

1)  From  Itelative  Clauses. — Clauses  introduced  by  Relative  Pronouns  or 
Relative  Adverbs  always  have  an  antecedent  or  correlative  expressed  or  un- 
derstood, and  are  never,  as  a  whole,  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb,  while 
Indirect  Questions  are  generally  so  used  ; 

Dicam  quod  sentio  {rel.  clause).  I  will  tell  that  wJdch  (id  quod)  /  think. 
Cic.  Dicam  quid  intelllgam  {indirect  question),  I  will  tell  what  I  know. 
Cic.  Quaeramus  iibi  mS16fIcium  est,  Let  us  seek  there  (Ibi)  where  the  crime 
is.  Cic. 

In  the  first  and  third  examples,  quod  sentio  and  Hhi—est  are  not  questions,  but 
relative  clauses ;  id  is  understood  as  the  antecedent  of  quod,  and  \hi  as  the  antece- 
dent or  correlative  otubi  ;  but  in  the  second  example,  quid  intelllyam.  is  an  indirect 
question  and  the  object  o{  dicam :  I  wUl  tell  (what?)  what  I  know,  i.  e.,  will  answer 
that  question. 

2)  From  Direct  Questions  and  Exclamations  : 

Quid  igendum  est  ?  Nescio,  What  is  to  be  done  f  I  know  not.  Cic. 
Vide  !  quam  conversa  res  est,  See.^  how  changed  is  the  case.  Cic. 

6.  Indicative  in  Indirect  Questions. — The  Indicative  in  Indirect  Ques- 
tions is  sometimes  used  in  the  poets  ;  especially  in  Plautus  and  Terence  : 

Si  mfemfirSre  v61im,  quam  f  idgli  anlmo  fui,  possum,  Jf  Iwish  to  mention 
how  much  fidelity  I  showed,  I  am  able.  Ter. 

7.  Questions  in  the  Oratio  Obliqua.    See  530.  II.  2. 

526.  Single  and  Double  Questions. — Indirect  ques- 
tions, like  those  which  are  direct  (346.  IL),  may  be  either 
single  or  double. 

I.  An  Indirect  Single  Question  is  generally  introduced  by  some  intei 
rogative  word — either  a  pronoun,  adjective,  or  adverb,  or  one  of  the  parti- 
cles ne,  nonne,  num.     Here  num  does  not  imply  negation  : 

Rdgltat  qui  vir  esset  (481.  IV.),  He  asked  who  he  was.  Liv.  EpSminon. 
das  quaeslvit,  salvusne  esset  clipeus,  Epaminondas  inquired  whether  his 
shield  was  safe.  Cic,  Dublto  num  debeam,  /  doubt  whether  I  ought.  Plin. 
See  also  the  examples  under  the  Rule,  525. 

II.  An  Indirect  Double  Question  {whether — or)  admits  of  two  con- 
structions : 

1.  It  generally  takes  tUrum  or  ne  in  the  first  member,  and  an  in  the 
second : 

Quaerltur,  virtus  suamne  propter  dignitatem,  an  propter  Iructus  Sllquos 
expfetStur,  It  is  asked  whether  virtue  is  sought  for  its  own  worth,  or  for  cer- 
tain advantages.  Cic. 

2.  But  sometimes  it  omits  the  particle  in  the  first  member,  and  take« 
an  or  ne  in  the  second.     Other  forms  are  rare  : 

Quaerltur,  nStQra  an  doctrlna  possit  eflTTci  virtus,  It  is  asked  whether  vir- 
iue  can  be  secured  by  naiure  or  by  education.  Cic.     See  also  346.  1.1). 


244 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


1)  In  the  second  member,  necne,  sometimes  an  non,  is  used  in  the  sense  of  or  noi : 
Sapientia  beatos  eflf  iciat  necne,  quaestio  est,  Whether  or  not  wisdom  makes  men 

happy^  is  a  question.  Cic. 

2)  An,  in  the  sense  of  xchether  not,  implying  an  affirmative,  is  used  after  verbs 
and  expressions  of  doubt  and  uncertainty :  dublio  an,  nescio  an,  hand  scio  an,  I 
doubt  whether  not,  I  know  not  whether  not  =  I  am  inclined  to  think;  diibium  est 
an,  incertum  est  an,  it  is  uncertain  whether  not  =  it  is  probable : 

Dubito  an  Thrasybulum  primum  omnium  ponam,  I  doubt  whether  I  should  not 
place  Thrasybulus  first  of  all,  i.  e.,  I  am  inclined  to  think  I  should.  Nej). 

8)  An  sometimes  has  the  force  of  aut,  perhaps  by  the  omission  of  incertum  estf 
as  used  above ; 

Simonides  an  quis  alius,  Simonides  or  some  other  one.  Cic. 


VIII.  Subjunctive  by  Attraction. 

-RULE  XLVI -Attraction. 

527.  The  Subjunctive  by  Attraction  is  often  used 
in  clauses  dependent  upon  the  Subjunctive : 

Vereor,  ne,  dum  minuere  vfelim  laborem,  augeam,  /  fear  I  shall  in- 
crease the  labor,  while  I  wish  to  diminish  it.  Cic.  Tempus  est  hujusmodi, 
ut,  ubi  quisque  sit,  ibi  esse  minlme  vSlit,  The  time  is  of  such  a  character 
that  every  one  wishes  to  he  least  of  all  where  he  is.  Cic.  Mos  est,  ut  dicat 
sententiam,  qui  velit,  The  custom  is  that  he  who  wishes  expresses  his  opin- 
ion. Cic. 

1.  Application.— This  rule  is  applicable  to  clauses  introduced  by  con- 
junctions, adverbs,  or  relatives.  Thus,  in  the  examples,  the  clauses  intro- 
duced by  dum,  ubi,  and  qui,  take  the  subjunctive,  because  they  are  dependent 
upon  clauses  which  have  the  Subjunctive. 

2.  Indicative  or  Subjunctive. — Such  clauses  generally  take, 

1)  The  Lidicative,  when  they  are  in  a  measure  parenthetical  or  give  spe- 
cial prominence  to  ihefact  stated : 

Milites  misit,  ut  eos  qui  fugSrant  persSquSrentur,  He  sent  soldiers  to  pur- 
sue those  who  had  fled,  i.  e.,  the  fugitives.  Caes.  Tanta  vis  probitatis  est, 
ut  earn,  vel  in  iis  quos  nunquam  vidimus,  dlligamus,  Such  is  the  force  of  in- 
tegrity that  we  love  it  even  in  those  whom  we  have  never  seen.  Cic. 

The  Indicative  with  dum  is  very  common,  especially  in  the  poets  and  historians : 
Fuere  qui,  dum  dubitat  Scaevlnus,  hortarentur  PIsonem,  There  were  those  who 
txhorted  Piso,  while  Sca&vinus  hesitated.  Tac.    See  also  467.  4. 

2)  The  Subjunctive,  when  the  clauses  are  essential  to  the  general  thought 
of  the  sentence,  as  in  the  examples  under  the  rule. 

8.  After  Infinitive  Clauses. — The  principle  just  stated  (2)  applies 
also  to  the  use  of  Moods  in  clauses  dependent  upon  the  Infinitive.     This 


ATTRACTION.      INDIRECT   DISCOURSE.  245 

often  explains  the  Subjunctive  in  a  condition  belonging  to  an  Infinitive, 
especially  with  non,  posmm : 

Nee  bfinltas  esse  pdtest,  si  non  per  se  expfitatur,  Nor  can  goodness  exist 
(=  it  is  not  possible  that),  if  it  is  not  sougTitfor  itself.  Cic. 

But  clauses  dependent  upon  the  Infinitive  are  found  most  frequently 
in  the  Oratio  ObUqua  and  are  accordingly  provided  for  by  629, 


IX.  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Discourse, — 
Oratio  Ohliqua, 

528.  When  a  writer  or  speaker  expresses  thoughts, 
whether  his  own  or  those  of  another,  in  any  other  form  than 
in  the  original  words  of  the  author,  he  is  said  to  use  the 
Indirect  Discourse — Oratio  Ohliqua: 

Platonem  ferunt  in  Italiam  venisse,  They  say  thai  Plato  came  into 
Italy.  Cic.  Respondeo  te  dolSrem  ferre  moderate,  /  reply  that  you  bear 
the  affliction  vnth  moderation.  Cic.  UtUem  arbitror  esse  scieutiam,  /  think 
that  knowledge  is  useful.  Cic. 

1.  Direct  and  Indirect. — In  distinction  from  the  Indirect  Discourse — 
Oratio  Ohliqua,  the  original  words  of  the  author  are  said  to  be  in  the  Direct 
Discourse—  Oratio  Eecta.  Thus  in  the  first  example,  Platonem  in  Italiam, 
venisse  is  in  the  indirect  discourse ;  in  the  direct,  i.  e.,  in  the  original  words 
of  those  who  made  the  statement,  it  would  be  :  Plato  in  Italiam  venit. 

2.  Quotation. — Words  quoted  without  change  belong  of  course  to  the 
Direct  Discourse : 

Rex  "duumvlros"  inquit  "  sScundum  legem  fScio,"  The  king  said,  "I 
appoint  duumvirs  according  to  law."  Liv. 


RTTLE  XLVII.— Subjimctive  in  Indirect  Disconrse. 

529.  The  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  in  the  In- 
terrogative, Imperative,  and  Subordinate  clauses  of  the 
Oratio  Obliqua : 

Ad  postiilata  CaesSris  respondit,  cur  vSnlret  {direct :  cur  vSnis  ?),  To 
the  demands  of  Caesar  he  replied,  why  did  he  come.  Caes.  Scribit  LSbigno 
cum  ISgiOne  vSniat  (direct:  cum  ISgione  vSni),  lie  writes  to  Zahienus  1x 
come  (that  he  should  come)  with  a  legion.  Caes.  Hippias  glOriatus  est, 
anniilum  quem  hSberet  {direct :  hSbeo)  se  sua  m^nu  confecisse,  Hippias 
boasted  (hat  he  had  made  mth  his  own  hand  the  rhig  which  he  wore.  Cic. 

Note. — For  convenience  of  reference  the  following  outline  of  the  uflo 
of  Moods,  Tenses,  Pronouns,  etc.  in  the  Oratio  Obliqua  is  here  inserted. 


246  ORATIO   OBLIQUA. 

530.  Moods  in  Principal  Clauses. — The  Principal 
clauses  of  the  Direct  discourse,  on  becoming  Indirect, 
undergo  the  following  changes  of  Mood  : 

I.  When  Declarative^  they  take  the  Infinitive  (551)  : 

Dicebat  Snimos  esse  divinos  (direct :  animi  sunt  dlvlni),  He  was  wont 
to  my  that  souls  were  divine.  Cic.  Platonem  Tarentum  venisse  reperio 
{Plato  Tarentum  venit\  I  find  that  Plato  came  to  Tarentum.  Cic.  CSto 
mlrari  se  {miror)  aiebat,  Cato  loas  wont  to  say  that  he  wondered.  Cic. 

II.  When  Interrogative  or  Imperative^  they  generally 
take  the  Subjunctive  according  to  Rule  XL VII. 

1.  Verb  Omitted. — The  verb  on  which  the  Infinitive  depends  is  often 
omitted,  or  only  implied  in  some  preceding  verb  or  expression ;  especially 
after  the  Subjunctive  of  Purpose : 

Pythia  praecepit  ut  Miltiadem  imperatorem  sumerent ;  incepta  pros- 
p6ra  futura,  Pythia  commanded  that  they  should  take  Miltiades  as  their  com^ 
mander,  (telling  them)  that  their  efforts  would  be  successful.  Nep. 

2.  Rhbtoeical  Questions. — Questions  which  are  such  only  in  form, 
requiring  no  answer,  are  generally  construed,  according  to  sense,  in  the 
Infinitive.  They  are  sometimes  called  Rhetorical  questions,  as  they  are 
often  used  for  Rhetorical  efiect  instead  of  assertions  :  thus  numpossit,  can 
he?  for  nan  potest,  he  can  not;  quid  sit  turpius,  what  is  more  base?  for 
nihil  est  turpius,  nothing  is  more  base. 

Here  belong  many  questions  which  in  the  direct  form  have  the  verb  in 
the  first  or  third  person  : 

Respondit  num  mSmoriam  deponere  posse,  He  replied,  could  he  lay 
aside  the  recollection.  Caes.  Here  the  direct  question  would  be :  Num 
mfemoriam  deponere  possim  ? 

3.  Imperative  Clauses  with  the  Infinitive.     See  551.  II.  1. 

531.  Moods  in  Subordinate  Clauses. — The  Subor- 
dinate clauses  of  the  Direct  discourse,  on  becoming  Indi- 
rect, put  their  finite  verbs  in  the  Subjunctive  : 

Orabant,  ut  sibi  auxiliura  ferret  quod  premerentur  {direct :  nobis 
auxJlium  fer,  quod  premimur),  TTiey  prayed  that  he  loould  bring  them  help^ 
because  they  were  oppressed.  Caes. 

1.  Infinitive  in  Relative  Clauses.— It  must  be  remembered  (453), 
that  Relative  clauses,  though  subordinate  in  form,  sometimes  have  the  force 
of  Principal  clauses.  When  thus  used  in  the  Oratio  Obliqua,  they  may  be 
construed  with  the  Infinitive : 

Ad  eum  defertur,  esse  civem  Romanum  qui  querSretur  :  quem  (=  et 
euni)  asservatum  esse,  It  was  reported  to  him  that  there  was  a  Roman  citizen 
who  m,ade  a  complaint,  and  that  lie  had  been  placed  under  guard.  Cic.  So 
also  comparisons  :  Te  suspicor  iisdem,  quibus  me  ipsum,  commSveri,  /««*» 
feet  thai  you  are  moved  by  the  sam^  things  as  I  am.  Cic, 


MOODS    AND   TENSES.  247 

2.  Infinitive  after  certain  Conjunctions.— The  Infinitive  occurs,  es- 
pecially in  Livy  and  Tacitus,  even  in  clauses  after  quia,  quum,  quamquam, 
and  some  other  conjunctions  : 

Dicit,  se  moenlbus  inclusos  t6n6re  eos ;  quia  per  agros  vSgari,  He  says 
thai  he  keeps  them  shut  up  within  the  walls,  because  (otherwise)  they  would 
wander  through  the  fields.  Liv.     See  also  551.  I.  5  and  6. 

3.  Indicative  in  Parenthetical  Clauses. — Clauses  may  be  introduced 
parenthetically  in  the  oratio  obliqua  without  strictly  forming  a  part  of  it, 
and  may  accordingly  take  the  Indicative : 

Rfefferunt  silvam  esse,  quae  appellatur  BficGnis,  They  report  that  thert 
is  a  forest  which  is  called  Bacenis.  Caes. 

4.  Indicative  in  Clauses  not  Parenthetical. — Sometimes  clauses  not 
parenthetical  take  the  Indicative  to  give  prominence  to  the  fact  stated. 
This  occurs  most  frequently  in  Relative  clauses  : 

Certior  factus  est  ex  ea  parte  vici,  quam  Gallis  concess6rat,  omnes 
discessisse,  He  was  informed  that  all  had  withdrawn  from  that  part  of  the 
village  which  he  had  assigned  to  the  Gauls.  Caes, 

532.  Tenses. — Tenses  in  the  Oratio  Obliqua  generally 
conform  to  the  ordinary  rules  for  Infinitive  and  Subjunc- 
tive Tenses  (480,  540),  but  the  law  of  Sequence  of  Tenses 
admits  of  certain  qualifications  : 

1.  The  Present  and  Perfect  may  be  used  even  after  a  Historical  tense, 
to  impart  a  more  lively  effect  to  the  narrative  : 

Caesar  respondit,  si  obsides  sibi  dentur,  s6se  pacem  esse  facturum,  Cae- 
tar  replied,  that  if  hostages  should  be  given  him,  he  would  makepeace.  Caes. 

2.  In  Conditional  sentences  of  the  third  form  (510), 

1)  The  condition  retains  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  without  reference 
to  the  tense  of  the  Principal  verb  ; 

2)  The  Conclusion  changes  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive 
into  the  Periphrastic  Infinitive  in  ru^  (or  das)  esse  or  fuisse: 

Censes  Pompeium  laetaturum  fuisse,  si  sciret.  Do  you  think  Pompey 
would  have  rejoiced,  if  he  had  known  ?  Cic.  Clamitabat,  si  ille  Sdesset,  ven- 
tures esse,  He  cried  out  that  they  would  come,  if  he  were  present.  Caes. 

But  the  Regular  Infinitive,  instead  of  the  periphrastic  forms,  sometimes  occurs 
la  this  construction,  especially  in  expressions  of  Duty,  etc  (475.  4). 

8.  In  Conditional  Sentences  of  the  second  form  (509),  the  Condition 
generally  conforms  to  the  Rule  for  Sequence  of  Tenses  (480),  but  the 
Conclusion  changes  the  Subjunctive  to  the  Future  Infinitive : 

Respondit,  si  Aeduis  s^tisfiiciant,  s6se  cum  iis  pacem  esse  factiirum, 
He  replied  that  if  tlcey  would  satisfy  the  Aeduans,  he  would  makepeace  with 
them.  Caes.  Legitos  mittit,  si  ita  f^cisset,  &mlcitiam  futuram,  He  sent 
messengers  saying  that^  if  he  would  do  thus^  there  would  he  friendship.    Caes. 


248  ORATIO    OBLIQUA.      IMPERATIVE. 

Here  miitit  is  the  Historical  Present.    See  467.  TIL 

4.  The  Future  Perfect  in  a  Subordinate  clause  of  the  Direct  discourse 
is  changed  in  the  Indirect  into  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  after  a  Principal 
tense,  and  into  the  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  after  a  Historical  tense : 

Agunt  ut  dimicent ;  ibi  imperium  fore,  unde  victoria  fuerit,  TAei/  ar- 
range that  they  shall  fight ;  that  the  sovereignty  shall  he  on  the  side  which 
shall  win  the  victory  (whence  the  victory  may  have  been).  Liv.  Apparfibat 
regnaturum,  qui  vicisset,  It  was  evident  that  he  would  be  Icing  who  should 
conquer.  Liv. 

533.  Pronouns,  Adverbs,  etc. — Pronouns  and  ad- 
verbs, as  also  the  persons  of  the  verbs,  are  often  changed 
in  passing  from  the  Direct  discourse  to  the  Indirect : 

Gloriatus  est  annulum  se  sua  mSuu  confecisse  [direct :  anniilum  ego 
mea  mSnu  confeci),  He  boasted  thai  he  had  made  the  ring  with  his  own 
hand.  Cic. 

1.  Pronouns  of  first  and  second  persons  are  often  changed  to  the 
third.  Thus  above  ego  in  the  direct  discourse  becomes  se,  and  mea  becomes 
sua.    In  the  same  way  hie  and  iste  are  often  changed  to  ille. 

2.  Adverbs  meaning  he7'e  or  now  are  often  changed  to  those  meaning 
th^re  or  then  ;  nunc  to  turn  ;  hie  to  illic. 

3.  In  the  use  of  pronouns  observe 

1)  That  references  to  the  Speaker  whose  words  are  reported  are  made, 
if  of  the  1st  Pers.  by  ego,  mens,  noster,  etc.,  if  of  the  2d  Pers.  by  tu,  tuus, 
etc.,  and  if  of  the  3d  Pers.  by  sui,  suus,  ipse,  etc.,  though  sometimes  by 
hie,  is,  ille. 

2)  That  references  to  the  Rbpoetbr,  or  Author,  are  made  by  ego, 
meus,  etc. 

3)  That  references  to  the  Person  Addressed  by  the  reporter  are  made 
by  tu,  tuus,  etc. 

Ariovistus  respondit  nos  esse  iniquos  qui  se  interpellaremus  (direct  : 
vos  estis  iniqui  qui  me,  etc.),  Ariovistus  replied  that  we  were  unjust  who 
interrupted  him.  Caes. 

Here  noa  refers  to  the  Reporter^  Caesar,  we  Romans.  Se  refers  to  the  Speaker, 
Ariovistus.    In  the  second  example  under  528,  ie  refers  to  the  Person  Addressed. 


SECTION   VII. 

IMP  ERA  TIVE. 

I.  Tenses  op  the  Imperative. 
634.  The  Imperative  has  but  two  Tenses  : 

I.  The  Present  has  only  the  Second  person,  and  cor- 
responds to  the  English  Imperative  : 

Justltiam  c51e,  Practise  justice.  Cic.    Perge,  CStJlIna,  Go,  Catiline.  Cic. 


IMPERATIVE.  249 

11.  The  Future  has  the  Second  and  Third  persons,  and 
corresponds  to  the  imperative  use  of  the  English  Future 
with  shall,  or  to  the  Imperative  let : 

li  consules  appellantor,  They  shall  be  called  consuls,  or  let  them  be 
called  consuls.  Cic.  Quod  dixero,  fScitote,  You  shall  do  what  I  say  (shall 
have  said).  Ter. 

1.  Future  for  Present.— The  Future  Imperative  is  sometimes  used 
where  we  should  expect  the  Present : 

QuSniam  supplicStio  decrgta  est,  cfelebrStSte  illos  dies,  Since  a  thanks- 
giving has  been  decreed,  celebrate  those  days.  Cic. 

This  is  particularly  common  in  certain  verbs :  thus  scio  has  only  the  forms  of 
the  Future  in  common  use. 

2.  Present  for  Future. — The  Imperative  Present  is  often  used  in  poetry, 
and  sometimes  in  prose,  of  an  action  which  belongs  entirely  to  the  future : 

Ubi  Sciem  vidSris,  turn  ordines  disslpa,  When  you  shall  see  the  line  of 
hattle,  then  scatter  the  ranks.  Liv. 

n.  Use  op  the  Impeeative. 
ETJLE   XLVIII.— Imperative. 

636.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  commands,  exhor- 
tations, and  entreaties : 

Justitiam  cole,  Practise  justice.  Cic,  Tu  ne  cede  mSlia,  Do  not  yield 
to  misfortunes.  Virg.  Si  quid  in  te  peccftvi,  ignosce,  If  I  have  sinned 
against  you,  pardon  me.  Cic. 

1.  Circumlocutions.— Instead  of  the  simple  Imperative,  several  circum- 
locutions are  common : 

1)  Cura  ut,fac  ut,fac,  each  with  the  Subjunctive  : 
COra  ut  vSnias,  See  that  you  come.  Cic.    See  489. 

2)  Fac  ne,  cave  ne,  cave,  with  the  Subjunctive  : 

Cive  f  Scias,  Beware  of  doing  it,  or  see  that  you  do  not  do  it.  Cic. 

8)  Ndli,  ndlite,  with  the  Infinitive : 

NCli  ImltSri,  do  not  imitate.  Cic.    See  538.  2. 

2.  Imperative  Clause  for  Condition.— An  Imperative  clause  may  be 
used  instead  of  a  Conditional  clause : 

Licesse;  jam  videbis  furentem,  Provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him), 
you  will  at  once  see  him  frantic.  Cic. 

3.  Imperative  Supplied. — The  place  of  the  Imperative  may  be  variously 
supplied : 

1)  By  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  (487)  : 

Sint  beSti,  Let  them  be  happy.  Cic.  Impii  He  audeant,  Let  n»t  the  im- 
pious dare.  Cic 


250  IMPERATIVE.      INFINITIVE. 

2)  By  the  Indicative  Future  : 

Quod  optimum  videbitur,  facies,  You  will  do  (for  Imper.  do)  what  eJuilX 
eeem  best.  Cic, 

536.  The  Imperative  Present,  like  the  English  Impera- 
tive, is  used  in  commands,  exhortations,  and  entreaties. 
See  examples  under  the  Rule. 

537.  The  Imperative  Future  is  used, 

I.  In  commands  involving  future  rather  than  present 

action : 

Rem  penditOte,  Tou  shall  consider  the  subject.  Cic.  Cras  p^tito ;  d^bl- 
tur,  Ask  to-morrow  ;  it  shall  be  granted.  Plaut. 

n.  In  laws,  orders,  jirecepts,  etc. : 

Consules  ngmini  parento,  The  consuls  shall  be  subject  to  no  one.  Cic. 
Salus  popiili  suprema  lex  esto,  The  safety  of  the  people  shall  be  the  supreme 
law.  Cic. 

538.  Imperative  in  Prohibitions. — In  prohibitions 
or  negative  commands, 

1.  The  negative  7ie^  rarely  non^  accompanies  the  Imper- 
ative, and  if  a  connective  is  required,  neve,  or  neu,  is  gen- 
erally used,  rarely  neque  : 

Tu  ne  cede  malis,  Do  not  yield  to  misfortunes.  Virg.  Hominem  mor- 
tuum  in  urbe  ne  sep61ito,  neve  urito,  Thou  shall  not  bury  or  burn  a  dead 
body  in  the  city.  Cic. 

2.  Instead  of  ne  with  the  Present  Imperative,  the  best 
prose  writers  generally  use  noli  and  nolite  with  the  Infini- 
tive : 

Nollte  putare  {for  ne  piitate),  do  not  think  (be  unwilling  to  think).  Cic. 


SECTIOl^  VIII. 

689.  The  treatment  of  the  Latin  Infinitive  embraces 
four  topics : 

I.  The  Tenses  of  the  Infinitive. 
II.  The  Subject  of  the  Infinitive. 

III.  The  Predicate  after  the  Infinitive. 

IV.  The  Construction  of  the  Infinitive. 


INFINITIVE.  251 

I.  Tenses  of  the  Infinitive. 

540.  The  Infinitive  has  three  tenses,  Present^  Perfect^ 
and  Future.  They  express  however  not  absolute,  but  rel- 
ative time,  denoting  respectively  Present,  Past,  or  Future 
time,  relatively  to  the  Principal  verb. 

1.  Peculiarities. — These  tenses  present  the  leading  peculiarities  specified  nnder 
these  tenses  in  the  Indicative.    See  467.  2. 

541.  The  Present  Infinitive  represents  the  action 
as  taking  place  at  the  time  denoted  by  the  principal  verb : 

Cupio  me  esse  clementem,  I  desire  to  he  mild.  Cic.  MSluit  se  diligi 
quain  mfetui,  Heprefei^ed  to  he  loved  rather  than  feared.  Nep. 

1.  Real  Time.— Hence  the  real  time  denoted  by  the  Present  Infinitive  is  the 
time  of  the  verb  on  which  it  depends. 

2.  Pbesent  for  Fctuee. — The  Present  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Future  and 
sometimes  has  little  or  no  reference  to  time : 

Cras  argentum  dure  dixit,  He  said  he  would  give  the  silver  to-morrow.  Ter. 

3.  Present  with  Debeo,  Possum,  etc.— After  the  past  tenses  of  debeo,  dportet, 
possum,  and  the  like,  the  Present  Infinitive  is  used  where  our  idiom  would  lead  us 
to  expect  the  Perfect ;  sometimes  also  after  mimlni,  and  the  like : 

Dcbuit  officiosior  esse,  He  ought  to  have  been  more  attentive.  Cic.  Id  pdtuit 
facSre,  He  might  have  done  this.  Cic. 

542.  The  Perfect  Infinitive  represents  the  action  as 
completed  at  the  time  denoted  by  the  principal  verb  : 

PlitSnem  fSrunt  ia  Italiam  vfinisse,  TTiey  say  that  Plato  came  into  Italy. 
Cic.  Conscius  mihi  6ram,  nihil  a  me  commissum  esse,  I  was  conscious  to 
myself  that  no  offence  had  been  committed  by  me.  Cic. 

1.  Real  Time.— Hence  the  real  time  denoted  by  the  Perfect  Infinitive  is  that 
of  the  Perfect  tense,  if  dependent  upon  the  Present,  and  that  of  the  Pluperfect,  if  de- 
pendent upon  a  Historical  tense,  as  in  the  examples. 

2.  Perfect  for  Present.— In  the  poets  the  Perfect  Infinitive  is  sometimes  used 
for  the  Present,  rai-ely  in  prose ; 

Tetigisse  timent  pootam.  They  fear  to  touch  (to  have  touched)  the  poet.  Ilor. 

8.  Passive  Infinitive.— The  Passive  Infinitive  with  esse  sometimes  denotes 
the  result  of  the  action  :  victus  esse,  to  have  been  vanquished,  and  so,  to  bo  a  van- 
quished man.  Fuisse  for  esse  emphasizes  the  completeness  of  the  action ;  victus 
fuisse,  to  have  been  vanquished.    See  575. 1. 

543.  The  Future  Infinitive  represents  the  action 
as  about  to  take  place  in  time  subsequent  to  that  of  the 
principal  verb  : 

BrQtum  visum  Iri  a  me  piito,  /  think  Brutus  will  be  seen  by  me.  Cic. 
OrSculum  datum  6rat  victrices  Athfinas  fcJre,  An  oracle  had  hem  given,  that 
AtJi4ns  would  be  victorious.  Cic. 

Hence  after  a  Principal  tense  the  real  time  of  the  Future  Infinitive  is  Future,  but 
after  a  Historical  tense  the  real  time  can  be  determined  only  by  the  context. 
12 


252  INFINITIVE. 

544.  Circumlocution  for  Future  Infinitive. — In- 
stead of  the  regular  Future  Infinitive,  the  circumlocution 
fiiturum  esse  ut^  oy  fore  u%  with  the  Subjunctive, — Present 
after  a  Principal  tense,  and  Imperfect  after  a  Historical 
tense, — is  frequently  used : 

Spgro  fore  ut  contingat  id  nobis,  /  hope  this  will  fall  to  our  lot  (I  hope 
it  will  come  to  pass  that  this  may  happen  to  us).  Cic.  Non  sp6rav6rat  Han- 
nibal, fore  ut  ad  se  def  icgrent,  Hannibal  had  not  hoped  that  they  would  revolt 
to  him.  Liv.    See  556.  II.  1. 

1.  CiECTTMLOCUTiON  NECESSARY.— ^^;^if^lr■Mm  6886  ut,  OX  for  e  ut,  with  the  Subjunc- 
tive, for  the  Future  Infinitive,  is  conimon  in  the  Passive,  and  is  moreover  necessary 
in  both  voices  in  all  verbs  which  want  the  Supine  and  the  Participle  in  rus. 

2,  Poke  ut  with  Perfect  Subjunctive.— Sometimes^yre  ut  with  the  Subjunc- 
tive, Perfect  or  Pluperfect,  is  used  with  the  force  of  a  Future  Perfect;  and  in  Passive 
and  Deponent  verbs, /ore  with  the  Perfect  Participle  may  be  used  with  the  same 
force : 

Dico  me  satis  adeptum  fore,  I  say  that  I  shall  have  obtained  enough.  Cic. 

8.  FuTURUM  fuisse  ut  with  Subjunctive. — FUtUrumfuisse  ut  with  the  Sub- 
junctive may  be  used  in  the  conclusion  of  a  conditional  sentence  of  the  third  form 
when  made  dependent : 

Nisi  nuntii  essent  allati,  existlmabant  futurum  fuisse,  ut  oppidum  amittgretur. 
They  thought  that  the  town  would  ham  been  lost,  if  tidings  had  not  been  brought^ 
Caes.    See  533. 2. 


n.   Subject   of  Infinitive. 

ETILE  XLIX.— Subject. 

645.  The  Subject  of  an  Infinitive  is  put  in  the  Ac- 
cusative : 

Sentimus  calere  ignem,  We  perceive  that  fire  is  hot.  Cic.  PlatOneni 
Tarentum  venisse  repfirio,  I  find  that  Plato  came  to  Tarenium.  Cic. 

1.  Historical  Infinitive. — In  lively  description  the  Infinitive  is  some- 
times used  for  the  Indicative  Imperfect.  It  is  then  called  the  Historical  In- 
finitive, and,  like  a  finite  verb,  has  its  subject  in  the  Nominative : 

Hostes  gaesa  conjicSre,  The  enemy  hurled  their  javelins.     Caes. 
The  Historical  Infinitive  may  often  be  explained  by  supplying  coe/pit  or  coept- 
runt;  but  in  most  instances  it  is  better  to  treat  it  simply  as  an  idiom  of  the  language. 

2.  Subject  Omitted. — The  Subject  of  an  Infinitive  may  be  omitted  : 
1)  When  it  denotes  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  of  the  prin- 
cipal clause,  or  may  be  readily  supplied  from  the  context : 

Magna  nSgotia  v61unt  agere.  They  wish  to  accomplish  great  undertakings, 
Cic.    Peccare  licet  n6mini,  It  is  not  lawful  for  any  one  to  sin.  Cic. 


INFINITIVE.  253 

2)  When  it  is  indefinite  or  general : 

Dlllgi  jacundum  est,  Jt  is  pleasant  to  he  loved.  Cio. 

3.  Infinitive  Omitted. — Esse  and  fuisse  are  often  omitted  in  the 
compound  forms  of  the  Infinitive  and  with  predicate  adjectives,  other  in- 
finitives less  frequently  (551.  6) : 

Audlvi  sClItum  Fabricium,  /  have  heard  that  Fabricius  was  wont.  Cic. 
SpCrSmus  nObis  prSfutQros,  We  hope  to  henejit  you.  Cic. 

in.  Predicate  after  Infinitive. 

646.  A  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  after  an  Infinitive 
regularly  agrees  with  the  Subject,  expressed  or  understood 
(362.3) : 

Ego  me  Phldiam  esse  mallem,  I  should  prefer  to  be  Phidias.  Cic.  TrSdl- 
tum  est,  H5m6rum  caecum  fuisse.  It  has  been  handed  down  oy  tradition- 
that  Homer  was  blind.  Cic.  Jugurtha  omnibus  cSrus  esse  {historical  infinv 
tive),  Jugurtha  was  dear  to  all.  Sail. 

647.  A  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective,  after  an  Infinitive 
whose  Subject  is  omitted,  is  often  attracted  into  the  Nom- 
inative or  Dative : 

I.  It  is  attracted  into  the  Nominative  to  agree  with  the  Sub» 
ject  of  the  principal  verb,  when  the  latter  is  the  samo  person  or 
thing  as  the  omitted  Subject : 

Nolo  esse  laudator,  /  am  unwiUing  to  he  an  eulogist.  Cic.  Beatus  esse 
«ine  virtute  n6mo  potest,  No  one  can  he  happy  without  virtue.  Cic. 

1.  This  occurs  most  frequently  (1)  after  verbs  of  duty,  ability,  courage, 
custom,  desire,  beginning,  continuing,  ending,  and  the  like — debeo,  possum, 
audeo,  s61eo,  cupio,  v61o,  malo,  nolo,  incipio,  pergo,  desino,  etc.,  and  (2) 
after  various  Passive  verbs  of  saying,  thinking,  finding,  seeming,  and  the 
like — dicor,  trador,f6ror — crfidor,  existimor,  putor — r6p6rior — videor,  etc.: 

Quis  scientior  esse  debuit.  Who  ought  to  have  been  more  learned  f  Cic. 
Pirens  dici  pStest,  He  can  be  called  a  parent.  Cic.  Stoicus  esse  v61uit.  He 
wished  to  be  a  Stoic.  Cic.  DSsInant  esse  timidi.  Let  them  cease  to  be  timid. 
Cic.  Inventor  esse  dicitur,  He  is  said  to  be  the  inventor,  Cic.  Pradena 
esse  putabStur,  He  was  thought  to  be  prudent.  Cic. 

2.  Participles  in  the  compound  tenses  of  the  Infinitive  are  also  attracted : 
PolUcItus  esse  dicitur,  He  is  said  to  have  promised.  Cic. 

II.  The  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  is  sometimes  attracted  in- 
to the  Dative  to  agree  with  a  Dative  in  the  principal  clause,  when 
the  latter  denotes  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  omitted  Subject  : 

Patricio  tribuno  plebis  figri  non  licebat,  It  was  not  lawful  for  a  patri^ 
dan  to  he  made  tribune  of  the  people.  Cic.  Mihi  negligenti  esse  non  licuit, 
It  ''jcas  rt^  permitted  me  to  he  negligent.  Cic. 


254  INFINITIVE. 

1.  This  Is  rare,  but  is  the  regular  construction  after  Vicet,  and  sometimes  occurs 
after  nScesse  est,  when  used  after  Hcet^  and  occasionally  in  other  connections  : 

Illis  timidis  licet  esse,  nobis  necesse  est  fort i  bus  viris  esse,  It  is  permitted  them 
to  be  timid,  it  is  necessary /or  us  to  be  brave  men.  Liv.    But, 

2.  Even  with  Licet  the  attraction  does  not  always  take  place : 

Ei  consiilem  fifiri  licet,  It  is  lawful  for  him  to  be  made  consul.  Caes. 


IV.    CONSTKUCTION   OF  THE   INFINITIVE. 

648.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  Subject,  has  m 
general  the  construction  of  a  Noun  in  the  Nominative  or 
Accusative,  and  is  used, 

I.  As  a  Nominative — Subject  of  a  Verb. 
II.  As  an  Accusative — Object  of  a  Verb. 
m.  In  Special  Constructions. 

I.  Infinitioe  as  /Subject, 

549.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  Subject,  is  often 
used  as  a  Nominative,  and  is  thus  made  the  Subject  of  a 
sentence,  according  to  Rule  III. : 

With  Subject.— FScinus  est  vinciri  civem  Romanum,  Thai  a  Eomaa 
citizen  should  he  bound  is  a  crime.  Cic.  Certum  est  libSros  amari,  It  is  cer- 
tain that  children  are  loved.  Quint.  Legem  br6vem  esse  oportet,  It  is  neces- 
sary that  a  law  he  brief.  Sen. 

Without  Subject. — Ars  est  diflfidlis  rem  publicam  rSgSre,  To  rule  a 
state  is  a  difficult  art.  Cic.  Carum  esse  jucundum  est,  It  is  pleasant  to  be  held 
dear.  Cic.  Haec  scire  jiivat,  To  hnow  these  things  affords  pleasure.  Sen. 
Peccare  licet  ngmini,  To  sin  is  not  lawful  for  any  one.  Cic. 

1.  Infinitive  as  Subject. — When  the  subject  is  an  Infinitive,  the  Predi- 
cate is  either  (1)  a  Noun  or  Adjective  with  Sum,  or  (2)  an  Impersonal  verb 
or  a  verb  used  Impersonally.    See  the  examples  above. 

1)  Tempus  =  tempestivum  is  thus  used  with  the  Infinitive : 
Tempus  est  dTc5re,  It  is  time  to  speak.  Cic. 

2.  Infinitive  as  Subject  of  an  Infinitive. — The  Infinitive  may  be  the 
subject  of  another  Infinitive : 

Intelligi  nfecesse  est  esse  deos,  It  rmist  be  understood  that  there  are  gods. 
Cic.    Esse  deos  is  the  subject  of  intelligi,  and  intelligi  esse  deos  of  necesse  est. 

Z.  Infinitive  with  Demonstrative.— The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  a 
Deimonstrative  as  an  attributive  in  agreement  with  it  •• 

Quibusdam  hoc  displicet  phil6s5phari,  This  philosophizing  (this  to  phi- 
losophize) displeases  some  persons.  Cic.  VivSre  ipsum  turpe  est  nObis,  To 
live  is  itself  ignoble  for  us.  Cic. 

4.  Personal  construction  for  Impersonal. — With  Passive  verbs,  in- 
stead of  the  Infinitive  with  a  subject  accusative,  a  Personal  construction  ia 


INFINITIVE.  255 

common,  by  which  the  Subject  Accusative  becomes  the  Subject  Nominative 
of  the  leading  verb  : 

Aristldes  justisslmus  fuisse  trSdltur  (for  Aristtdem  JugHsmnttm /imse 
iraditur),  Aristid^  is  said  to  have  been  most  just.  Cic. 

1)  The  Personal  Construction  is  used,  (1)  regularly  with  videor^Jubeor, 
vt'tor,  and  the  Simple  Tenses  of  many  verbs  of  saying,  thinking,  and  the 
like — dicor,  trddor, /eror,  perhibeor,  putor,  existimor,  etc.,  also  with  coeptus 
sum  and  dmtus  sum  with  a  Passive  Infinitive,  and  (2)  sometimes  with  other 
verbs  of  saying,  showing,  perceiving,  finding,  and  the  like. 

SSlem  e  mundo  tollgre  videntur,  They  seem  to  remove  the  sun  from  ilia 
world.  Cic.  PlStonem  audivisse  dicitur.  He  is  said  to  have  heard  Plato.  Cic. 
Dii  beSti  esse  intelliguntur,  TJie  gods  are  understood  to  be  happy.  Cic. 

2)  In  successive  clauses  the  Personal  construction  is  often  followed  by 
the  Impersonal. 

3)  Videor  with  or  without  a  Dative  often  means  to  fanq/,  think  : 
mihi  videor  or  videor,  I  fancy ;  ut  vid^m^ir,  as  we  fancy. 

II.  Infinitive  as  Object. 

650.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  Subject,  is  often 
used  as  an  Accusative,  and  is  thus  made  the  object  of  a 
verb,  according  to  Rule  V. : 

To  dlcunt  esse  sSpientem,  ITiey  say  that  you  are  wise.  Cic.  Haec 
vltare  cujumus,  We  desire  to  avoid  these  things.  Cic.  M2n6re  decrgvit; 
lie  decided  to  remain.  Nep. 

551.  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative. — This  is 
used  as  object  with  a  great  variety  of  verbs.     Thus, 

I.  With  Verbs  of  Perceiving  and  Declaring, —  Verba 
fSentiendi  et  Dlcldrandi. 

II.  With  Verbs  of  Wishing  and  Desiring. 
III.   With  Verbs  of  Emotion  and  Feelinir. 

I.  "With  Verbs  of  Perceiving  and  Declaring. — Sentimus  cSIere 
nem,  We  perceive  that  fire  is  hot.  Cic.     Mihi  narrflvit  te  solIIcTtum  esse, 
J  /('  told  me  that  you  were  troubled.  Cic.     Scrips6runt  Thfimistoclem  in  Asiam 
uansisse,  They  wrote  thai  Themistocles  had  gone  over  to  Asia.  Nep. 

1.  Verba  Sentiexdi. —  Verbs  of  Perceiving  include  those  which  involve 
(1)  the  exercise  of  the  senses:  audio,  video,  sentio,  etc.,  and  (2)  the  exercise 
of  the  mind :  thinking,  believing,  knowing,  cOgUo,  puto,  existkno,  aedo, 
'tpiro, — intelligo,  scio,  etc. 

2.  Verba  Declarandi. —  Verbs  of  Declaring  are  such  as  state  or  commu- 
nicate facts  or  thoughts :  dlco,  narro,  nurdio,  dbceo,  ostendo,  prdmitto,  etc. 

8.  Expressions  with  the  Force  of  Verbs. — The  Infinitive  with  a  sub- 
ject may  be  used  with  expressions  equivalent  to  verbs  of  perceiving  and  de- 
claring.   Thus : 


266  iNPiNinvE. 

"With  fSivna  fert,  report  says,  testis  siim,  I  am  a  witness  =  I  testify ;  consottK 
mihi  sum;  I  am  conscious,  I  know : 

Nullam  mihi  relatam  esse  gratiam,  tu  es  testis,  Ton  are  a  witness  (can  testify) 
that  no  grateful  return  has  been  made  to  me.  Cic. 

4.  Participle  for  Infinitive. — Verbs  of  Perceiving  take  the  Accusative 
with  the  Present  Participle,  when  the  object  is  to  be  represented  as  actually 
seen,  heard,  etc.,  while  engaged  in  a  given  action  : 

CStonem  vidi  in  bibliotheca  s6dentem,  /  saw  Goto  sitting  in  tJie  library. 
Cic. 

5.  Subjects  Compared. — When  two  subjects  with  the  same  predicate 
are  compared  by  means  of  quam,  idem — qui,  etc. ;  if  the  Accusative  with  the 
Infinitive  is  used  in  the  first  clause,  the  Accusative  with  its  Infinitive  omitted 
may  follow  in  the  second : 

Piatonem  fSrunt  idem  sensisse,  quod  P^thagoram,  They  say  tJiM  Plato 
held  the  same  opinion  as  Pythagoras.  Cic. 

6.  Predicates  Compared. — When  two  predicates  with  the  same  subject 
are  compared  and  the  Infinitive  with  a  Subject  is  used  in  the  first  clause,  the 
Infinitive  with  its  subject  omitted  often  follows  in  the  second  : 

Num  piitatis,  dixisse  Antonium  minacius  quam  facturum  fuisse.  Do  you 
thinh  Antony  spoke  more  threateningly  tharv  he  would  have  acted  ?  Cic. 

But  the  second  clause  may  take  the  subjunctive,  with  or  without  ut: 

Audeo  dicfire  ipsos  potius  cultores  agrorura  fore  quam  ut  coli  prohibeant,  /  dare 

say  that  they  will  themselves  become  tillers  of  the  fields  rather  than  prevent  them 

from  being  tilled.  Liv. 

II.  With  Verbs  of  Wishing  and  Desiring. — The  Infinitive  with 
Subject  Accusative  is  also  used  with  verbs  of  Wishing  and  Desiring : 

Te  tua  frui  virtute  cupimus,  We  desire  that  you  should  enjoy  your  vir- 
tue. Cic.  Pontem  jubet  rescindi,  Re  orders  the  bridge  to  be  broken  down 
(that  the  bridge  should  be  broken  down).  Caes.  Lex  eum  necari  vStuit, 
The  law  forbade  that  he  should  be  put  to  death.  Liv. 

1.  Verbs  of  Wishing. — The  Infinitive  is  thus  used  not  only  with  verbs 
which  directly  express  a  wish,  cupio,  volo,  nolo,  malo,  etc.,  but  also  with 
many  which  involve  a  wish  or  command :  potior,  sino,  to  permit ;  impero, 
juheo,  to  command ;  proMheo,  veto,  to  forbid.    See  also  558.  II. 

2.  Subjunctive  for  Infinitive. — Several  verbs  involving  a  wish  or 
command  admit  the  Subjunctive : 

1)  Opto.    See  492.  3. 

2)  Volo,  malo,  nolo,  impero,  and  jubeo  admit  the  Subjunctive,  generally  with 
ut  or  ne : 

Volo  ut  respondeas,  /  wish  you  would  reply.  Cic.  Malo  te  hostis  m§tuat,  / 
prefer  that  the  enemy  should  fear  you.  Cic, 

8)  Concedo,  permitto,  rarely  pdtior  and  slno,  admit  the  Subjunctive  with  ut: 
Concedo  ut  haeo  apta  sint,  J  admit  that  these  things  are  suitable.  Cic. 

III.  With  Verbs  of  Emotion  or  Feeling. — The  Infinitive  with  Sub- 
jeet  Accusative  is  also  used  with  verbs  of  Emotion  or  Feeling: 


INTINITIVK.  257 

Gaudeo,  te  mihi  suSdere,  /  rejoice  tluU  you  advise  me.  Cic.  Mirftmur, 
te  laetaii,  We  wonder  that  you  rejoice.  Cic. 

Verbs  of  emotion  are  ffuudeo,  ddleo,  mlror,  qv^rar,  and  the  like ;  also  aegrs 
fSro,  (jfdvlterfiro,  etc 

652.  Infinitive  without  Subject  Accusative. — This 
is  used  as  Object  with  many  verbs : 

Vinc6re  scis,  You  know  how  to  conqicer  (you  know  to  conquer).  Liv. 
Creduli  esse  coepgrunt,  They  began  to  be  credulous.  Cic.  Ilaec  vitare  cu- 
pimus,  We  desire  to  avoid  these  things.  Cic.  Solent  cogltare,  I'hey  are 
accustomed  to  think.  Cic.  Nemo  mortem  eflFug6re  potest,  No  one  is  able  to 
escape  death.  Cic. 

1.  Verbs  with  the  Infinitive, — The  Infinitive  may  depend  upon  verba 
signifying  to  dare,  desire,  determine — begin,  continue,  end — know,  learn,  neg- 
lect— owe,  promise,  etc.,  also  to  be  able,  be  accustomed,  be  wont,  etc. 

\.  Infinitive  as  a  Second  Object. — With  a  few  verbs — doceo,  cogo,  as- 
w^facio,  arguo,  etc. — the  Infinitive  is  used  in  connection  with  a  direct  object; 
see  374.  4 : 

Te  s&p6re  d6cet,  He  teaches  you  to  be  wise.  Cic.  Nationes  pSrfire  assue- 
ftcit,  He  accustomed  the  nations  to  obey.  Cic. 

In  the  Passive  these  verbs  of  course  retain  the  Infinitive: 

Num  sum  Qraece  lOqui  docendus,  Mvrst  1  be  taught  to  speak  Greek  f  Cic. 

8.  Infinitive  after  Adjectives. — By  a  construction  according  to  sense, 
the  Infinitive  is  used  after  adjectives  in  the  sense  of  participles  or  verbs  with 
the  Infinitive : 

Est  pSrStus  (vult)  audire,  He  is  prepared  to  hear  (is  willing  to  hear).  Cic. 

Pelides  c6d6re  nescius  (=  nesciens),  Pelides  not  knoicing  how  to  yield. 
Hor.    Avidi  committfere  pugnam,  eager  to  engage  battle.  Ovid. 

This  construction  is  rare  in  good  prose,  but  common  in  poetry. 

4.  Infinitive  with  Prepositions. — The  Infinitive  regarded  as  a  noun  in 
the  accusative,  sometimes  depends  upon  a  preposition : 

Multum  interest  inter  dSre  et  acclpfire,  There  is  a  great  diff'erence  between 
giving  and  receiving.  Sen. 

JIT.  Infinitive  in  Special  Constructions, 

653.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  Subject,  is  gen- 
erally used  as  the  Subject  or  Object  of  a  verb,  but  some- 
times occurs  in  other  relations.     It  is  thus  used, 

I.  As  Predicate  ;  see  362  : 

Ezltus  fuit  SrStiSnis :  sibi  nullam  cum  his  ftmlcltiam.  The  close  of  his 
oration  was  that  he  hud  no  friendship  with  these.  Caes.  Viv6re  est  cSgltSre, 
To  live  is  to  think.  Cic. 

Here  tUbi—dmlcVtiam  Is  used  snbetantlvely,  and  is  the  Predicate  Nomioatlve 
ftftcr/w«,  according  to  Eule  I.    C^gUdre  is  in  the  same  conbtruction  after  est 


£58  INFINITIVE. 

II.  As  Appositive  ;  see  363  : 

Oiaciilum  datum  6rat  victrices  Athgnas  fSre,  The  oracle  that  Athens 
would  be  victorious  had  been  given.  Cic.  Illud  s61eo  mirari  non  me  acclpfere 
tuas  litteras,  /  am  accustomed  to  wonder  at  this,  that  I  do  not  receive  your 
Idter.  Cic. 

1.  With  Subject.— In  this  construction  the  Infinitive  takes  a  subject  accusati  ve, 
es  in  the  examples. 

2.  ExpLANATioK.— In  the  examples,  the  clause  mci/rlces  AtMnas  fdre  is  in  ap- 
position with  drdcHlv/m,  and  the  clause  non  me  accipire  tuas  littiras,  in  apposition 
with  ilLud. 

III.  In  Exclamations  ;  see  381 : 

Te  sic  vexari,  that  you  should  he  thus  troubled  !  Cic.  Mene  incepto  d&- 
sistSre  victam,  that  I  vanquished  should  abandon  my  undertaking  !  Virg. 

i.  With  Subject. — In  this  construction  the  Infinitive  takes  a  Subject,  as  ic  the 
examples. 

2.  Explanation.— This  use  of  the  Infinitive  conforms,  it  will  be  observed,  to  the 
use  of  Accusative  and  Nominative  in  exclamations  (381,  381.  3).  It  may  often  be  ex- 
plained as  an  Accus.  by  supplying  some  verb,  as  doleo,  etc.,  or  as  a  Nom.  by  supplying 
credendum  est  or  credWile  est.  Thus  the  first  example  becomes :  /  grieve  (doleo) 
that  you,  etc.,  and  the  second  becomes:  Is  it  to  he  supposed  (credendum  est)  that  1 
vanquished,  etc. 

8.  Impassioned  Questions.— This  construction  is  most  frequent  in  impassioned 
questions,  as  in  the  second  example. 

lY.  As  Ablative  Absolute.     See  431.  4. 
Y.  To  express  Purpose : 

P6cus  6git  altos  vis&re  montes,  He  drove  his  herd  to  visit  the  lofty  moun- 
tains. Hor.  Non  pSpiilare  pSnates  venimus.  We  have  not  come  to  lay  wast* 
your  homes.  Virg. 

This  construction  is  confined  to  poetry. 

YI.  Poetic  Infinitive  for  Gerund.     See  663.  6. 


SECTION  IX. 

SUBJECT  AND    OBJECT  CLAUSES. 

654.  Subject  and  Object  Clauses,  in  which,  as  we  have 
just  seen  (549  and  550),  the  Infinitive  is  so  freely  used, 
assume  four  distinct  forms  : 

I.  Indieect  Questions. — These  represent  the  Subject 
or  Object  as  Interrogative  in  character : 

Quaeritur,  cur  dissentiant,  It  is  ashed  why  they  disagree.  Cic.  Quid 
Sgendum  sit,  nescio,  I  do  not  Jcnow  what  ought  to  be  done.  Cic.    See  535. 


SUBJECT  A2JD  OBJECT  CLAUSES  259 

II.  Infinitive  Clauses. — ^Thesa  have  simply  the  force 
of  Nouns,  merely  supplying  the  place  of  the  Nominative, 
or  the  Accusative : 

AntScellfire  contlgit,  It  was  his  good  fortune  to  excel  (to  excel  happened). 
Cic.  Magna  nggStia  voluit  figgre,  He  wished  to  achieve  great  undertakings. 
Cic.    See  549,  650. 

III.  SuBJUNcnvE  Clauses. — These  clauses  introduced 
by  ut,  ne,  etc.,  are  only  occasionally  used  as  subject  or  ob- 
j  i3ct,  and  even  then  involve  Purpose  or  Result : 

Contlgit  ut  patriam  vindlcSret,  It  was  his  good  fortune  to  save  his  coun- 
try.  Nep.  Vdio  ut  mihi  respondcas,  I  wish  you  would  answer  me.  Cic.  See 
4'J'J,  495. 

Here  ut—rindlcdret  is  at  once  subject  and  result :  it  was  his  good  fortune  to  save 
Lis  country,  or  liis  good  fortune  was  such  that  he  saved  his  country.  In  the  second 
exainplo,  ut-~respondea8  expresses  not  only  the  object  desired,  but  also  the  purpose 
of  the  desiae. 

IV.  Clauses  -svith  Quod. — These  again  are  only  occa- 
sionally used  as  subject  or  object,  and  even  then  either  give 
prominence  to  the  tact  stated,  or  present  it  as  a  Ground  or 
Reason : 

B6n6f  icium  est  quod  nficesse  est  mSri,  It  is  a  blessing  tTud  it  is  necessary 
to  die.  Sen.    Gaudeo  quod  te  interpellSvi,  I  rejoice  that  (because)  /  have  in- 
rrupted  you.  Cic.    See  520. 

Clauses  with  quod  sometimes  stand  at  the  beginning  of  sentences  to  announce 
the  subject  of  remark : 

Quod  me  AgSmemndnem  aem&lari  pfitan,  fallSris,  As  to  the  fact  that  you  think  I 
emulate  Agamemnon,  you  are  mistaken.  Nep. 


I.  Forms  op  Subject  Clauses. 

555.  Interrogative. — Subject  clauses  which  are  in- 
terrogative in  character,  of  course  take  the  form  of  indirect 
questions.     See  525.  2  and  554.  I. 

556.  Not  Interrogative. — Subject  clauses  which  are 
not  interrogative,  with  some  predicates  take  the  form  of 
Intinitive  clauses,  or  clauses  with  qxiod ;  while  with  other 
predicates  they  take  the  form  of  Subjunctive  clauses  with 
ut^  n€,  etc.     Thus, 

I.  With  most  impersonal  verbs  and  with  predicates  consisting 
of  eat  with  a  Noun  or  Adjective,  the  Subject  may  be  supplied  (1) 
by  the  lafinitive  with  or  without  a  Subject  Accusative,  or,  (2)  if 


260  SUBJECT   AND   OBJECT   CLAUSES. 

khe  fact  is  to  be  made  prominent  or  adduced  as  a  reason,  by  a 
clause  with  quod : 

Me  poenitet  vixisse,  /  regret  that  I  Jiave  lived.  Cic.  Quod  te  offendi  mo 
poenitet,  I  regret  that  (or  because)  I  have  qf  ended  you.  Cic. 

1.  Sttbstantivb  Predicates  with  Subjunctive.— Mos  est,  moris  est,  consuS- 
tudo  est,  consuetudinis  est,  It  is  a  custom,  etc.,  admit  the  Subjunctive  for  the  Infin* 
Itive : 

Mos  est  hominum  ut  nolint,  It  is  a  custom  of  men  that  they  are  not  willing. 
Cic 

2.  Adjective  Pbedioates  with  Subjunctive.— Efiliquum  est,  proxTmum  est, 
extremum  est— verum  est,  verisimile  est,  falsum  est— gloriosum  est,  mirum  est,  opti- 
mum est,  etc.,  admit  the  Subjunctive  for  the  Infinitive : 

Reliquum  est  ut  certemus,  it  remains  that  we  contend.  Cic.  Verum  est  ut 
bdnos  diligant,  It  is  true  that  they  love  the  good.  Cic. 

II.  With  Impersonal  verbs  signifying  to  happen — accidit,  con- 
tingit,  evenit,  fit — ut,  ut  non,  with  the  Subjunctive,  ic  generally 
used  (495.  2) : 

ThrSsj^bfllo  contigit,  ut  patriam  vindicaret,  It  was  the  good  fortune  of 
Thrasybulus  (happened  to  him)  to  deliver  his  country.  Nep. 

1.  Here  belong  accedit  ut,  est  ut,fu,tiirum  esse  ut,  at  pre  ut.    See  544. 

2.  Clauses  with  quod  also  occur  with  verbs  of  happening. 

III.  With  Impersonal  verbs  signifying  it  follows.,  remains,  is 
distant,  and  the  like,  the  Subjunctive  clause  with  ut  is  generally 
used  : 

RSlinquJtur,  ut  quiescamus,  It  remains  that  we  should  submit-  Cic. 
See  495.  2. 

IV.  Subjunctive  clause  standing  alone.    See  495.  2.  2). 


II.  Forms  of  Object  Clauses. 

557.  Interrogative. — Object  clauses  which  are  inter- 
rogative in  character,  of  course,  take  the  form  of  indirect 
questions.     See  554. 1. 

558.  Not  Interrogative. — Object  clauses  which  are 
not  interrogative  in  character,  supplying  the  place  of  direct 
objects  after  transitive  verbs,  sometimes  take  the  form  of 
Infinitive  clauses,  sometimes  of  Subjunctive  clauses,  and 
sometimes  of  clauses  with  quod.    Thus, 


1.  Regularly  the  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative.     See 
551. 1. 

2.  But  the  Subjunctive  with  ut  or  ne,  when  they  involve  « 
tommand : 


OBJECT  CLAUSES,  261 

DdlSbellae  dixit,  ut  ad  me  scrlbSret  ut  in  Mliam  vSnlrem,  He  told  Dola- 
bella  to  write  to  me  to  come  into  Italy.  Cic.    See  492.  2. 

II.  Verbs  of  determining,  statuOj  constUtio,  decemo^  and  the 
1  ke,  take, 

1.  Generally  the  Infinitive,  when  the  subject  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  principal  verb,  rarely  the  Subjunctive: 

M&u&re  d^ci&vit,  ffe  determined  to  remain.  Nep.  Stituerunt,  ut  llbeitS 
tem  defendferent,  They  determined  to  defend,  liberty.  Cic.    See  551.  II. 

2.  The  Subjunctive  with  ut  or  ne  (expressed  or  understood), 
when  a  new  subject  is  introduced : 

ConstItu6rat,  ut  tribflnus  qu6r&r6tur,  He  had  arranged  that  the  tribune 
fhould  enter  the  complaints  Sail.  SfenStus  dficrgvit,  dfirent  6p6ram  consiiles, 
The  senate  decreed  that  the  consuls  should  attend  to  it.  Sail.    See  492.  3. 

Sidttio,  dicemo,  etc.,  when  they  mean  to  think,  deem,  suppose,  etc.,  become 
verba  seniiendi  (551.  I.  1),  and  of  course  take  the  Infinitive: 

Laudem  sapientiae  sttltuo  esse  maxUnam,  /  deem  it  to  be  the  higliest  praise  of 
tiUdom.  Cic. 

III.  Verbs  of  stkivinq,  endeavoring,  take  the  Subjunctive 
A\  ith  ut  or  ne.  See  492.  1.  But  contendo,  nltor,  studeo,  and  tentOy 
generally  take  the  Infinitive  when  the  subject  is  the  same  : 

L6cum  oppugnare  contendit,  He  proceeds  to  storm  the  city.  Caes.  Ten- 
tabo  de  hoc  dic6re,  I  will  attempt  to  speak  of  this.  Quint.    See  552. 

IV.  Verbs  of  causing,  making,  accomplishing,  take  the  Sub- 
junctive with  ut,  ne,  ut  non.    See  492,  495. 

1.  Examples. — Ficio,  efflcio,  perficio— fidipiscor,  impetro — assSquor, 
consfequor,  and  sometimes  fSro,  are  examples  of  verbs  of  this  class. 

2.  Facio  and  Efficio.— i^ac/o  in  the  sense  of  assume,  suppose,  takes  the 
Infinitive ;  eficio  in  the  sense  of  prove,  show,  either  the  Infinitive  or  the  Sub- 
junctive with  ut,  etc. : 

Fac  Siiimos  non  r6m&n6re  post  mortem,  Assume  that  souls  do  not  survive 
after  death.  Cic.  Vult  efiTcSre  animos  esse  morlSles,  He  wishes  to  show  thai 
souls  are  mortal.  Cic. 

V.  Verbs  of  emotion  or  feeling,  whether  of  joy  or  sorrow, 

1.  The  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative,  to  express  the  Ob- 
ject in  view  of  which  the  feeling  is  exercised.     See  551.  III. 

2.  Clauses  with  quA)d,  to  make  more  prominent  the  Beason  for 
the  feeling : 

Gaudeo  quod  te  interpellSvi,  I  rejoice  that  (or  because)  I  have  interrupt- 
ed  you.  Cic.  D6l6bam  quod  sficium  Bmlsferam,  I  was  grieving  becavM  I  had 
lost  a  companion.  Cic.    See  520.  I. 

For  Vebbs  of  Dbsibimg,  see  651.  II.  2. 

VI.  Verbs  of  asking,  demanding,  advising,  warning,  com- 


262  OBJECT  CLAUSES.      GERUNDS. 

HANDING,  and  the  like,  take  the  Suhjunctive,  generally  with  ut 
or  ne  : 

Oro  ut  homines  misferos  conserves,  lim/plore  that  you  would  preserve  the 
unhappy  men.  Cic.  Postulant  ut  signum  detur,  They  demand  that  the  sig- 
nal he  given.  Liv.    See  492.  2. 

1.  Examples. — Verbs  of  this  class  are  liimerons— the  following  are  examples : 
6ro,  rS^o,  peto,  prScor,  obsScro— flagito,  postulo,  praecipio— hortor,  luoneo,  euadco, 
persuadeo — impello,  incite,  moveo,  commoveo. 

2.  Used  as  Verba  Declarandi.— Some  of  these  verbs  in  particular  significa- 
tions become  verba  declarandi  (551.  2),  and  accordingly  take  the  Infinitive  with 
Subject  Accusative:  thus  mdneo,  in  the  sense  of  remind  &iid persuadeo  in  the  sense 
of  convince. 

8.  Infinitive.— Even  in  their  ordinary  significations  some  of  these  verbs,  espe- 
cially hortor,  moneo,  and  postUlo,  sometimes  take  the  Infinitive  with  or  without  a 
Subject  Accusative : 

Postiilat  se  absolvi,  ffe  demands  that  he  should  he  acquitted.  Cic.  See  551. 
II.  1  and  2. 

The  Infinitive  is  much  more  common  in  poetry  than  in  prose. 


SECTION  X 

GEEVUD. 

559.  The  Gerund  is  a  verb  in  force,  but  a  noun  in  form 
and  inflection.  As  a  verb  it  governs  oblique  cases  and 
takes  adverbial  modifiers,  as  a  noun  it  is  itself  governed. 

560.  The  Gerund  has  four  cases :  Genitive,  Dative,  Ac- 
cusative, and  Ablative,  governed  like  nouns  in  the  same  sit- 
uation : 

Beate  vivendi  ciipSfditate  incensi  sumus,  We  are  animated  with  the  desire 
of  living  happily.  Cic.  Charta  inutilis  scrlbendo,  paper  U7ifit  for  writing. 
Plin.    Ad  agendum  natus,  born  for  action.  Cic.    In  agendo,  in  acting.  Cic. 

1.  Accusative. — The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  only  after  Prepo- 
sitions. 

2.  Gerund  and  Infinitive. — The  gerund  and  the  infinitive  are  kindred 
forms,  expressing  the  meaning  of  the  verb  in  the  form  of  a  noun  (196.  II.). 
They  are  also  complements  of  each  other,  the  one  supplying  the  parts  which 
are  wanting  in  the  other.  Thus  the  infinitive  supplies  the  nominative  and 
the  accusative  after  verbs  (548) ;  the  gerund  supplies  the  genitive,  dative, 
and  ablative,  and  the  accusative  after  prepositions. 

561.  Gerunds  with  Direct  Objects  are  regularly  used 
only  in  the  Genitive  and  in  the  Ablative  without  a  prepo- 
sition : 

Jus  vScandi  s^nEtum,  the  right  of  summoning  the  senate.  Li  v.  Injiirias 
f  6rendo  laudem  m6r6beris.  You  will  merit  praise  by  bearing  wrongs.  Cic. 


GKEUNDS  AND  GERUNDIVES.  263 

662.  Gerundive. — The  place  of  the  Gerund  with  a  Di- 
r«jct  Object  is  supplied  by  putting  that  object  in  the  case 
of  the  Gerund  and  changing  the  latter  into  the  participle  in 
'du8  in  agreement  with  it.  The  participle  is  then  called  a 
Gerundive : 

Inlta  sunt  consllia  urbis  dSlendae  =  urbem  delendi,  Plans  have  been 
formed  for  destroying  the  city  (of  the  city  to  be  destroyed).  Cic.  Numa  si- 
cerdotlbus  creandis  &Dimum  adjecit,  Numa  gave  his  attention  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  priests.  Liv. 

1.  Explanation. — "With  the  Gerund,  the  first  example  would  be :  Inita 
sunt  consilia  urbem  dUendi,  in  which  dilendi  is  governed  by  consilia,  and 
urbem  by  delendi.    In  changing  this  to  the  Gerundive  construction, 

1)  Urbem,  the  object,  is  changed  into  urbis,  the  case  of  the  gerund,  and  is 
governed  by  consilia. 

2)  Dilendi,  the  gerund,  is  changed  into  dilendae,  the  gerundive,  in  agree- 
ment with  urbis. 

2.  Gerundive. — For  the  sake  of  brevity,  the  term  Gerundive  is  used  not 
only  to  designate  the  Participle,  but  also  the  Construction  as  a  whole,  includ- 
ing both  the  participle  and  the  noun  with  which  it  agrees. 

3.  Use  of  Gerundive. — The  Gerundive  may  be  used  for  the  Gerund 
with  a  Direct  Object,  and  is  almost  invariably  so  used  when  the  Gerund 
would  be  in  the  Dative  or  would  depend  upon  a  preposition.    But  see  563.  2. 

But  in  a  few  instances  the  Gerund  with  a  Direct  Object  occurs  in  the  Dative  or 
dependent  upon  a  preposition.    See  564. 1 ;  565.  2 ;  and  566. 2. 

4.  Gerundives  op  utob,  fruor,  etc.— In  general  only  the  gerundives 
of  transitive  verbs  are  used  with  their  nouns  as  equivalents  for  Gerunds 
with  Direct  Objects ;  but  the  gerundives  of  iUor,  fruor,  fungor,  pdtior,  and 
vescor,  originally  transitive  verbs,  admit  this  construction: 

Ad  mQnus  fungendum,/or  discharging  the  duty.  Cic.  Spes  p5tiund5- 
rum  castrorum,  the  hope  of  getting  possession  of  the  camp.  Caes. 

5.  Passive  Sense.— In  a  few  instances,  the  Gerund  has  in  appearance  a 
passive  sense  : 

N6que  h&bent  propriam  percipiendi  nfitam,  Nor  have  they  any  proper 
mark  of  distinction,  i.  e.,  to  distinguish  them.  Cic. 


I.  Genitiye  op  Gerunds  and  Gerundives. 

563.  The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  is  used 
with  nouns  and  adjectives : 

Gerund. — Ara  vlvendi,  the  art  of  living.  Cic.  StiidiSsus  Srat  audiendi. 
He  teas  desirous  of  hearing.  Nep.  Jus  v6candi  sfinStum,  <A<  right  ofsum^ 
moning  the  senate.  Liv.     Cupidus  te  audiendi,  desirous  of  hearing  yoti.  Cic. 

GkrundIve. — Libido  ejus  videndi,  the  desire  of  seeing  him.  Cic.  PlitOnis 
•tiidiSsus  audiendi  fuit.  He  was  fond  of  hearing  Plato.  Cic. 


264  GERUNDS  AND  GERUNDIVES. 

1.  The  genitive  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  occurs  most  frequently — 

1)  With  ars,  scientia,  consuetudo, — cupiditas,  libido,  stiidium,  consilium, 
voluntas,  spes, — pStestas,  f3.cultas,  difficultas,  occasio,  tempus, — g6nu8,  ni6' 
dus,  ratio, — causa,  gratia,  etc. 

2)  "With  adjectives  denoting  desire,  knowledge,  skill,  recollection,  and 
their  opposites :  avidus,  ciipidus,  stiidiosus — conscius,  gnarus,  ignSrus — p6ri- 
tus,  imp6ritus,  insuetus,  etc. 

2.  Gerund  preferred. — A  gerund  with  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective  as 
object  should  not  be  changed  to  the  participial  construction,  because  the  lat- 
ter could  not  distinguish  the  gender : 

Artem  vera  ac  falsa  dijtidicandi,  the  art  of  distinguishing  true  things 
from  the  false.  Cic. 

S.  Gerund  with  Genitive. — The  Gerund  in  the  Genitive  sometimes  as- 
sumes so  completely  the  force  of  a  noun  as  to  govern  the  Genitive  instead  of 
the  Accusative : 

Bejiciendi  judicum  pdtestas,  the  power  of  challenging  (of)  the  judges. 
Cic. 

Here  rejiciendi  may  be  governed  by  potestas,  and  may  itself  by  its  substantive 
force  govern  Judicum,  the  challenging  of  the  judges,  etc.  But  these  and  similar  forms 
in  di  are  sometimes  explained  not  as  Gerunds  but  as  Gerundives,  like  Gerundives 
with  mei,  nostri,  etc.    See  4  below. 

4.  Participial  Construction  with  mei,  nostri,  etc. — With  the  Geni- 
tive of  personal  pronouns— me*',  nostri,  tui,  vestri,  sui — the  participle  ends  in 
di  without  reference  to  Number  or  Gender : 

Copia  placandi  tui  {of  a  woman),  an  opportunity  of  appeasing  you.  Ov. 
Sui  conservandi  causa,  ybr  the  purpose  of  preserving  themselves.  Cic.  Vestii 
adhortandi  causa, /or  the  purpose  of  exhorting  you.  Liv. 

This  apparent  irregularity  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  these  genitives, 
though  used  as  Personal  Pronouns,  are  all  strictly  in  form  in  the  neuter  singular  of 
the  Possessives  meu/m,  tuum,  suum,  etc.,  hence  the  participle  in  di  agrees  with  them 
perfectly. 

5.  Purpose. — The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  is  sometimes 
used  to  express  Purpose  or  Tendency : 

Haec  tradendae  Hannibali  victoriae  sunt.  These  things  are  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  victory  to  Hannibal.  Liv.  Leges  pellendi  claros  viros,  laws  for 
driving  away  illustrious  men.  Tac.  Prof  iciscitur  cognoscendae  antiquitStis, 
He  sets  out  for  the  purpose  of  studying  antiquity.  Tac. 

This  genitive  is  sometimes  best  explained  as  Predicate  Genitive  (401),  as  in  the 
first  example;  sometimes  as  dependent  upon  a  noun,  as  pellendi  dependent  upon  leges 
in  the  second  example;  and  sometimes  simply  as  a  Genitive  of  Cause  (393,  409.  4),  as 
in  the  third  example ;  though  in  such  cases,  especially  in  the  second  and  third,  cauna 
may  be  supplied. 

6.  Infinitive  for  Gerund. — The  Infinitive  for  the  Genitive  of  the 
Gerund  or  Gerundive  is  often  used  in  the  poets  with  nouns  and  adjectives, 
sometimes  even  in  prose  : 

Cupido  Stygios  innare  lacus,  th£  desire  to  sail  upon  the  Stygian  lakes. 
Virg.    Aridus  committfere  pugnam,  eager  to  engage  battle.  Ovid. 


GERUNDS  AND  QEEUNDIYES.  265 


TT.  Dative  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives. 

564.  The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  is  used 
with  a  few  verbs  and  adjectives  which  regularly  govern  tho 
Dative : 

Gerund. — Quum  solvendo  non  essent,  Since  they  were  not  able  to  pay, 
Cic.    Aqua  utilis  est  bibendo,  Water  is  useful  for  drinking.  Plin, 

Geeundive. — LScum  oppldo  condendo  c6p6runt,  They  selected  a  placi 
for  founding  a  city.  Liv.  Tempdra  dfimStendis  fructibus  accomrnddSta, 
seasons  suitable  for  gathering  fruits.  Cic. 

1.  Gerund. — The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  is  rare  and  confined  mostly  to 
late  writers;  with  an  object  it  is  almost  without  example. 

2.  Gerundive  of  Purpose. — In  Livy,  Tacitus,  and  late  writers,  the  Da- 
tive of  the  Gerundive  often  denotes  purpose : 

Firmandae  valetudini  in  Campaniam  concessit,  He  withdrew  into  Cam- 
pania to  confirm  his  health.  Tac. 

S.  Gerundive  with  Official  Names. — The  Dative  of  the  Gerundive  also 
stands  after  certain  official  names,  as  decemviri,  triumviri,  comitia : 

D6cemviros  Ifigibus  scribendis  creavimus.  We  have  appointed  a  commit- 
tee of  ten  to  prepare  laws.  Liv.  But  the  Dative  is  perhaps  best  explained 
as  dependent  upon  the  verb. 


III.  Accusative  op  Gerunds  and  Gerundives. 

565.  The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  is 
used  after  a  few  prepositions  : 

Gerund. — Ad  discendura  prOpensi  sumus,  We  are  inclined  to  learn  (to 
learning).  Cic.     Inter  ludendum,  in  or  during  play.  Quint. 

Gerundive. — Adi  coXen^os,  a.geo^,  for  cultivating  the  fields.  Cic.  Ante 
condendam  urbem,  before  tfie  founding  of  the  city.  Liv. 

1.  Prepositions. — The  Accusative  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive  is  used 
most  frequently  after  ad ;  sometimes  after  inter  and  ob  j  very  rarely  after 
ante,  circa,  and  in. 

2.  With  Object.— The  accusative  of  a  gerund  with  a  direct  object 
sometimes  occurs,  but  is  rare  : 

Ad  placandum  deos  pertlnet,  It  tends  to  appease  the  gods.  Cic. 

3.  Purpose. — Withxerhs  of  giving, permitting,  leaving,  taking,  etc.,  the 
purpose  of  the  action  is  sometimes  denoted  by  the  Gerund  with  ad,  or  by 
the  Gerundive  in  agreement  with  a  noun  : 

Ad  Imltandum  mihi  propSsitum  exemplar  illud,  TTiat  model  has  been  set 
before  me  for  imitation.  Cic.  Attribuit  It^liam  vastandam  (for  ad  vastan- 
diim)  C&tlllnae,  He  assigned  Italy  to  CaHline  to  ravage  (to  be  ravaged).  Cic. 


206  SUPINE. 

IV.  Ablative  of  Gerunds  or  Gerundives. 

566.  The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  is  used, 

I.  As  Ablative  of  Means  or  Instrument : 

Gerund. — Mens  discendo  alitur,  The  mind  is  nourished  hy  learning.  Cic. 
Salutem  hominibus  dando,  by  giving  safety  to  men.  Cic. 

Gerundive. — L6gendis  oratoribus,  hy  reading  the  orators.  Cic. 

II.  With  Prepositions  : 

Gerund. — Virtutes  cernuntur  in  agendo,  Virtues  are  seen  in  action.  Cic. 
Deterrere  a  scribendo,  to  deter  fj^om  writing.  Cic. 

Gerundive. — Brutus  in  liberanda  patria  est  interfectus,  Bruttts  was  slain 
in  liberating  his  country.  Cic. 

1.  Prepositions. — The  ablative  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive  is  used  most 
frequently  after  in  ;  sometimes  after  a  (ab),  de,  ex  (e) ;  very  rarely  after 
ciun  and  pro. 

2.  With  Object.-* After  prepositions,  the  ablative  of  the  gerund  with  a 
direct  object  is  exceedingly  rare  : 

In  tribuendo  suum  cuique,  in  giving  every  one  his  own.  Cic. 

3.  Without  a  Preposition,  the  ablative  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive  de- 
notes in  a  few  instances  some  other  relation  than  that  of  means,  as  time^ 
separation,  etc. : 

Incipiendo  refugi,  I  drew  hack  in  the  very  beginning.  Cic. 

SECTIOIsr  XI. 

SUPIITE. 

667.  The  Supine,  like  the  Gerund,  is  a  verb  in  force, 
but  a  noun  in  form  and  inflection.  As  a  verb  it  governs 
oblique  cases,  as  a  noun  it  is  itself  governed. 

568.  The  Supine  has  but  two  cases :  the  Accusative  in 
um  and  the  Ablative  in  w. 

RULE  L.— Supine  in  Um. 

569.  The  Supine  in  um  is  used  after  verbs  of  mo- 
tion to  express  purpose  : 

LegSti  venerunt  res  repetltum,  Deputies  came  to  demand  restitution. 
Liv.  Ad  CaesSrem  congratulatum  convenerunt,  They  came  to  Caesar  to 
congratulate  him.  Caes. 

1.  The  Supine  in  um  occurs  in  a  few  instances  after  verbs  which  do  not  directly 
express  motion : 


PARTICIPLHS.  267 

Flliam  Agrippae  naptam  dfidit,  Ee  gave  hU  da/ughter  in  marriage  to  Agrip- 
pa.  Suet. 

2.  The  Supine  in  um  with  the  verb  eo  is  equivalent  to  the  forms  of  the  first  Per- 
iphrastic Conjugation,  and  may  often  be  rendered  literally : 

Bonos  omnes  perditum  eunt,  They  are  going  to  destroij  all  the  good.  Sail. 

But  in  subordinate  clauses  the  Supine  in  um  with  the  verb  eo  is  often  used  for 
the  simple  verb : 

Ultum  Ire,  (=  ulcisci)  injurias  festlnat,  Jle  hastens  to  avenge  the  injuries.  Sail. 

8.  The  Supine  in  um  with  iH,  the  infinitive  passive  of  €0,  forms,  it  will  be  re' 
membered  (215,  III.  1),  the  Future  Passive  Infinitive: 

Brutum  visum  iri  a  me  puto,  I  think  Brutus  vnll  be  seen  by  me.  Cic. 

4  The  Supine  in  um  as  an  expression  of  purpose  is  not  very  common,  its  pl.ice 
is  often  supplied  even  after  verbs  of  motion  by  other  constructions : 

1)  By  ut  or  qui  with  the  Subjunctive.    See  489. 

2)  By  Gerunds  or  Gerundives.    See  663.  5 ;  564.  2 ;  565.  8. 
8)  By  Participles.    See  67a  V. 

670.  The  Supine  in  u  is  generally  used  as  an  Ablative 
of  Specification  (429)  : 

Quid  est  tarn  jucundum  auditu,  WJiat  is  so  agreeable  to  hear  (in  hear- 
ing) ?  Cic.     Dift  icile  dictu  est,  It  is  difficult  to  tell.  Cic. 

1.  The  Supine  in  u  is  used  chiefly  with— jucundns,  optlmus— facilis,  procllvis, 
diff  tcllis — incrcdibilis,  memorabilis— honestus,  turpis,  fas,  nefas— dignus,  indignus — 
6pus  est. 

2.  The  Supine  in  u  is  very  rare,  and  does  not  occtir  with  an  object.  The  only 
examples  in  common  use  are  :  auditu,  cognltu,  dictu,  and/actu. 

3.  As  the  Snpine  in  u  is  little  used,  its  place  is  supplied  by  other  constmctions ' 

1)  By  adtcith  the  Gerund:  Verba  ad  audiendum  jQcunda,  tcords  agreeable  to 
hear.  Cic. 

2)  By  the  Infinitive :  Facile  est  vinccre.  It  is  easy  to  conqtier.  Cic. 

8)  By  a  Finite  Mood  tcith  an  adverb:  Non  facile  dljudicatur  fimor  Actus, Pr«- 
tended  love  is  not  easy  to  detect  (is  not  easily  detected).  Cic. 


SECTION  xn. 

PAB  TICIPLE8. 

I.  Tenses  of  Paeticiples. 

671.  Participles,  like  Infinitives,  express  only  relative 
time,  and  represent  the  action  as  Present,  Past,  or  Future, 
relatively  to  the  principal  verb. 

Peccliabities.— Tenses  in  Participles  present  the  leading  peculiarities  specified 
under  the  corresponding  tenses  in  the  Indicative.    See  467.  2. 

572.  Present  Participle. — The  present  participle  rep- 
resents the  action  as  taking  place  at  the  time  denoted  by 
the  principal  verb : 

Ocj^lua  86  non  videns  Slia  cernit,  The  eye,  though  it  does  not  su  itself  (not 


268  USE    OF    PARTICIPLES. 

seeing  itself),  discerns  other  things.  Cic.    Pl&to  scrlbens  mortuus  est,  Plato 
died  while  writing.  Cic. 

573.  Future  Participle. — ^The  future  active  parti- 
ciple represents  the  action  as  about  to  take  place,  in  time 
subsequent  to  that  of  the  principal  verb : 

SSpiens  bona  semper  placitura  laudat,  The  wise  man  praises  blessings 
which  will  always  please  (being  about  to  please).  Sen. 

But  the  Future  Passive  generally  loses  in  a  great  de- 
gree its  force  as  a  tense,  and  is  often  best  rendered  by  a 
verbal  noun.     See  562  and  580. 

574.  Perfect  Participle. — The  perfect  participle  rep- 
resents the  action  as  completed  at  the  time  of  the  principal 
verb. 

Uva  maturata  dulcescit.  The  grape,  when  it  has  ripened  (having  ripen- 
ed), becomes  sweet.  Cic. 

1.  The  Perfect  Participle,  both  in  Deponent  and  in  Passive  verbs,  is  sometimes 
used  of  present  time,  and  sometimes  in  Passive  verbs  it  loses  in  a  great  degree  ita 
force  as  a  tense,  and  is  best  rendered  by  a  verbal  noun.    See  580. 

2.  For  the  Participle  with  hdbeo,  see  388. 1  2). 


II.  Use  of  Participles. 

675.  Participles  are  verbs  in  force,  but  Adjectives  in 
form  and  inflection.  As  verbs  they  govern  obUque  cases, 
as  adjectivcis  they  agree  with  nouns  : 

Animus  se  non  videns  Slia  cernit,  The  mind,  though  it  does  not  see  itself, 
discerns  other  things.  Cic. 

1.  Participles  in  the  Present  or  Perfect,  rarely  in  the  Future,  may  be  used  as 
adjectives  or  nouns :  scripta  ipistola,  a  written  letter ;  mortui,  the  dead.  Participles 
with  the  force  of  adjectives  maybe  used  as  predicate  adjectives  with  sum:  occupdti 
irant,  they  were  occupied;  as  a  verb,  had  been  occupied. 

576.  Participles  are  used  to  abridge  or  shorten  dis- 
course by  supplying  the  place  of  finite  verbs  with  relatives 
or  conjunctions.  They  are  used  with  much  greater  free- 
dom in  Latin  than  in  English. 

577.  Participle  for  Relative  Clause. — In  abridged 
sentences,  the  Participle  often  supplies  the  place  of  a  Rela- 
tive Clause : 


USE    OF   PARTICIPLES.  269 

Omnes  &liud  figentes,  Sliud  simiilantes  imprdbi  sunt,  All  who  do  one 
thing  and  pretend  another  are  dishonest.  Cic. 

578.  For  other  Subordinate  Clauses. — The  Parti- 
ciple often  supplies  the  place  of  a  subordinate  clause  with 
a  conjunction.     It  may  express, 

I.  Time  : 

Pl&to  scribens  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  while  writing.  Cic.  Ituri  in 
proejium  cSnunt,  They  sing  when  about  to  go  into  battle.  Tac. 

II.  Cause,  Manner,  Means  : 

Sol  Criens  diem  conf  icit,  The  sun  by  its  rising  causes  the  day.  Cic. 
Milites  rSnuntiant,  se  perf  Idiam  vferitos  rfevertisse,  The  soldiers  report  that 
tJiey  returned  because  they  feared  perfidy  (having  feared).  Caes. 

rn.  Condition : 

MendSci  hCmIni  ne  v6ruin  quidem  dicenti  cr6d6re  non  sSlfimus,  We  are 
not  wont  to  believe  a  liar,  even  if  he  speaks  the  truth.  Cic.  Rfeluctante  nattlra, 
irrltus  ISbor  est,  If  nature  opposes,  effort  is  vain.  Sen. 

IV.  Concession  : 

Scripta  tua  jam  diu  exspectans,  non  audeo  tSmen  flSgltSre,  Thorigh  1 
have  been  long  expecting  your  work,  yet  I  do  not  dare  to  ask  for  it.  Cic. 

V.  Purpose : 

Perseus  rfediit,  belli  cSsum  tentStfirus,  Perseus  returned  to  try  (about 
to  try)  the  fortune  of  war.  Liv.  Attribuit  nos  triicldandos  C6th6go,  He  <m- 
signed  us  to  Cethegus  to  slaughter.  Cic. 

579.  Participle  for  Principal  Clause. — The  Parti- 
ciple sometimes  supplies  the  place  of  a  principal  or  coor- 
dinate clause,  and  may  accordingly  be  best  rendered  by  a 
finite  verb  with  and  or  hut : 

Classem  dfivictam  c6pit,  He  conquered  and  took  the  fleet  (took  the  fleet 
conquered).  Nep.  Re  consentientes  vdcSbfilis  diff  firCbant,  They  agreed  in 
fact,  but  differed  in  words.  Cic. 

580.  Participle  for  Verbal  Noun. — The  Passive 
Participle  is  often  used  in  Latin  where  the  English  idiom 
requires  a  participial  noun,  or  a  verbal  noun  with  of: 

In  imlcis  elTgendis,  in  selecting  friends.  Cic.  HdmSrus  fuit  ante  R5' 
mam  condltam,  Homer  Uved  {w&a)  before  the  founding  of  Home  (before  Rome 
founded).  Cic. 

581.  Participle  with    Negative. — The    Participle 


270  PABTICLES. 

with  a  negative,  as  non,  nihil,  is  often  best  rendered  by 
a  participial  noun  and  the  preposition  without : 

Miserum  est,  nihil  proficientem  angi,  It  is  sad  to  be  troubled  without 
accomplishing  anything.  Cic,    Non  eriibescens,  without  blushing.  Cic. 


CHAPTEE   YI 

SYNTAX    OF    PARTICLES. 

RULE  LL— Use  of  Adverbs. 

682.  Adverbs  qualify  veebs,  adjectives,  and  other 

ADVEEBS  : 

Sapientes  f  ellciter  vivunt,  The  wise  live  happily.  Cic.  Facile  doctis- 
stmus,  unquestionably  the  most  learned.  Cic.  Haud  Sliter,  not  otherwise. 
Virg. 

683.  Adverbs  are  sometimes  used  with  nouns  : 

1.  When  the  nouns  are  used  with  the  force  of  adjectives  or  participles : 
Minime  largltor  dux,  a  leader  by  no  means  liberal.  Liv.     Popiilus  late 

rex,  a  people  of  extensive  sioay  (ruling  extensively).  Virg. 

2.  When  in  sense  a  participle  or  verb  may  be  supplied : 

MSrius,  plane  vir,  Marius,  truly  a  man.  Cic.  Omnes  circa  pSpiili,  ail 
the  surrounding  peoples.  Liv.     See  also  353.  2. 

684.  The  Common  Negative  Particles  are :  non,  ne, 
haud. 

1.  JVon  is  the  usual  negative,  ne  is  used  in  proMbitions,  wishes  and  purposes 
(489),  and  haud,  in  Jtaud  scio  an  and  -with  adjectives  and  adverbs :  haud  mlrdbile, 
not  wonderful ;  haud  dlUer,  not  otherwise.  M  for  ne  is  rare.  iVc  non  after  vide  is 
often  best  rendered  whether. 

2.  In  non  modo  non  and  in  non  solum  non,  the  second  non  is  generally  omitted 
before  sed,  or  verum,  followed  by  ne — guMem  or  vix  (rarely  Miam),  when  the  verb 
of  the  second  clause  belongs  also  to  the  first : 

Assentatio  non  mSdo  amico,  sed  ne  libfiro  quidem  digna  est.  Flattery  is  not 
only  not  worthy  of  a  friend,  hut  not  even  of  a  free  man.  Cic. 

8.  Minus  often  has  nearly  the  force  of  non  ;  si  minus  =  si  non.  Sin  AlUer  has 
nearly  the  same  force  as  si  minus. 


PARTICLES.  271 

585.  Two  Negatives  are  generally  equivalent  to  an 
aflirmative,  as  in  English ; 

Nihil  non  arrdget,  Ld  Mm  claim  everything.  Hot.  Ndque  hoc  Z6no 
non  videt,  Nor  did  Zeno  overlook  this.  Cic. 

1.  Non  before  a  general  negative  gives  it  the  force  of  an  indefinite  affirmative, 
but  after  such  negative  the  force  of  a  general  affirmative: 

Nonnemo,  «ome  «>»«  ;        nonmh\\  something  ;        nonn unquam,  sometime*. 
Nemo  non,  every  one  ;     nihil  non,  every  thing;    nunquam  non,  always. 

2.  After  a  general  negative,  ne—quldem  gives  emphasis  to  the  negation,  and 
n^que — n^que,  neve — neve,  and  the  like,  repeat  the  negation  distributively : 

Non  praetSreundum  est  ne  id  quidem,  We  must  not  pass  by  even  this.  Cic.  Nemo 
unquamn(5que  poeta  n6que  orator  fuit,  No  one  was  ever  either  a  poet  or  orator.  Cic. 

8.  Sic  and  ita  mean  so,  thus.  Jta  has  also  a  limiting  sense  in  so/ar  which  does 
not  belong  to  sic,  as  in  'ita—»i  (503.  4).  Adeo,  to  such  a  degree  or  result ;  tarn,  tan- 
tdpire,  so  much,  tarn  used  mostly  before  adjectives  and  adverbs,  and  tantdpire  before 
verbs. 

686.  For  the  use  of  Prepositions,  see  432  to  437. 

587.  Coordinate  Conjunctions  unite  similar  construc- 
tions (309).     They  comprise  five  classes : 

I.  Copulative  Conjunctions  denote  union : 

Castor  et  Pollux,  Castor  and  Pollux.  Cic.  SSnStus  pSpiilusque,  the  sen- 
ate and  people.  Cic.     Nee  Srat  diflf  icile,  Nor  was  it  difficult.  Liv. 

1.  List.    See  310. 1. 

2.  DiFFKEENOE  IN  FoRCK. — Et  slmpIy  connects;  que  Implies  a  more  Intlmat* 
relationship ;  atque  generally  gives  prominence  to  what  follows,  especially  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a  sentence;  ac,  abbreviated  from  atque,  has  generally  the  force  of  et. 
Nique  and  nee  have  the  force  of  et  non.    Et  and  etiam  sometimes  mean  even, 

Atque  and  ac  generally  mean  as,  tJian  after  adjectives  and  adverbs  of  likeness 
and  unlikeness ;  similis,  dissimilis,  similiter,  par,  pariter,  aeque,  Slius,  aliter,  sdcus : 
aeque  ac,  equally  as ;  dliter  atque,  otherwise  than.    Bee  also  451.  5. 

8.  Que,  ac,  atquk. — Que  is  an  enclitic,  i.  e.,  Is  always  appended  to  some  other 
word.  Ac  in  the  best  prose  Is  used  only  before  consonants;  atque,  either  before - 
vowels  or  consonants. 

4.  Etiam,  qtjoqite,  adeo,  and  the  like,  are  sometimes  associated  with  et,  atque, 
ac,  and  que,  and  sometimes  even  supply  their  place.  Qudque  follows  the  word  which 
It  connects :  is  qudque,  he  also.  Etiam,  also,  l\irther,  even,  is  more  comprehensive 
than  qudque  and  often  adds  a  new  circumstance. 

6.  CoBBELATivES. — Sometimes  two  copulatives  are  used:  et  (que) — et  (que), 
turn— turn,  quum— tum,  both— and  ;  but  quum—tum  gives  prominence  to  the  second 
word  or  clause;  non  solum  (non  mddo,  or  non  tantum) — sed  Stiam  (verum  ^tiam), 
not  only— but  also  ;  n^que  (nee) — nfique  (nee),  neither— nor  ;  nfique  (nee)— et  (que), 
not— but  (and) ;  et— neque  (nee),  {both)— and  not. 

6.  Omitted. — Between  two  words  connected  copulatively  the  conjunction  is 
generally  expressed,  though  sometimes  omitted,  especially  between  the  names  of  two 
colleagues.     Between  several  words  it  is  in  the  best  prose  generally  repeated  or 


272  PARTICLES. 

omitted  altogether,  though  que  may  be  used  with  the  last  even  when  the  conjunction 
i8  omitted  between  the  others :  pax  et  tranquillUas  et  Concordia,  or  pax,  tranquil- 
lltas,  Concordia,  or  pax,  iranqtdllUas,  concordidque. 

Et  is  often  omitted  between  conditional  clauses,  except  before  non. 

II.  Disjunctive  Conjunctions  denote  separation  : 

Aut  vestra  aut  sua  culpa,  either  your  faulty  or  his  own.  Liv.  Duabus 
tribusve  horis,  in  two  or  three  hows.  Cic. 

1.  List.    See  310.  2. 

2.  Aut,  vel,  vb. — Aut  denotes  a  stronger  antithesis  than  vel,  and  must  be  used 
If  the  one  supposition  excludes  the  other :  aut  verum  autfalsum,  either  true  or  false. 
Vel  implies  a  difference  in  the  expression  rather  than  in  the  thing.  It  is  generally  cor- 
rective and  is  often  followed  by potius.  etiam  or  dlcam :  lauddiur  vel  eiiam  dmdtur, 
he  is  praised,  or  even  (rather)  loved.  It  sometimes  means  even  and  sometimes /or 
example.     Vilut  often  means/or  example.     Ve  for  vel  is  appended  as  an  enclitic. 

In  negative  clauses  aut  and  ve  often  continue  the  negation  :  non  hdnor  aut  vir- 
tus, neither  (not)  honor  nor  virtue. 

8.  SivE  {si — ve)  does  not  imply  any  real  difference  or  opposition;  it  often  con- 
nects different  names  of  the  same  object:  Pallas  slve  Minerva,  Pallas  or  Minerva 
(another  name  of  the  same  goddess). 

III.  Adversative  Conjunctions  denote  opposition  or 
contrast : 

Ciipio  me  esse  clSmentum,  sed  ma  inertiae  condemno,  I  wish  to  he  mild, 
hut  I.  condemn  myself  for  inaction.  Cic. 

1.  List.    See  810.  8. 

2.  Difference  in  Foece. — Sed  and  verum  mark  a  direct  opposition ;  autem 
and  vero  only  a  transition  ;  at  emphasizes  the  opposition ;  atqui  often  introduces  an 
objection ;  cetirum,  but  still,  as  to  the  rest ;  tdmen,  yet. 

8.  CoMPOTTNDS  OP  TAMEN  are :  attdmen,  sedtdmen,  verunidmen,  but  yet. 

4.  AiTTEM  and  veeo  follow  the  words  which  they  connect :  hie  autem,  hie  vero, 
but  this  one.  They  are  often  omitted,  especially  before  non.  They  are  admissible 
with  qui  only  when  it  is/olloiced  by  its  antecedent 

lY.  Illative  Conjunctions  denote  inference  : 

In  umbra  igitur  pugnabimus,  We  shall  therefore  fight  in  the  shade.  Cic. 

1.  List.    See  310.  4. 

2.  Othee  Woeds.— Certain  other  words,  sometimes  classed  with  adverbs  and 
sometimes  with  conjunctions,  are  also  lllatives:  eo,  ideo,  idcirco,  proptSrea,  quam- 
obrem,  quapropter,  quare,  quocirca. 

3.  iGTTiTE.— This  generally  follows  the  word  which  it  connects :  Mc  Igitur,  this 
one  therefore.  After  a  digression  Igliur,  sed,  sed  tdmen,  verum,  verum  tdmen,  etc., 
are  often  used  to  resume  an  interrupted  thought  or  construction.  They  may  often  be 
rendered  I  say :  Sed  si  quis  ;  if  any  one,  I  say. 

V.  Causal  Conjunctions  denote  cause  : 

DiflScile  est  consilium:  sum  6nim  solus,  Oounselis  difficult,  for  I  am 
alone.  Cic.    Et6nim  jus  Smant,  For  they  love  the  right.  Cic. 
1.  LiM.    See  810.  R 


PARTICLES.  273 

2.  Etvnik  and  Namqits  denote  a  closer  connection  than  ^nim  and  nam. 
8.  Emim  follows  its  word- 

588.  Subordinate  Conjunctions  connect  subordinate 
with  principal  constructions  (309.  II.).  They  comprise 
eight  classes. 

I.  Temporal  Conjunctions  denote  time : 

PSruit  quum  nfecesse  6rat,  Ife  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary.  Cic.  Dum 
6go  in  SIcilia  sum,  while  lam  in  Sicily.  Cic.     See  also  311.  1 ;  521-523. 

I.  Dum  added  to  a  negative  means  yet;  nondum,  not  yet ;  vixdum,  scarcely  yet. 

II.  Comparative  Conjunctions  denote  comparison  : 

Ut  optasti,  ita  est,  It  is  as  you  desired.  Cic.  V61ut  si  Sdesset,  asij  k4 
were  present.  Caes.     See  also  311.  2;  503,506. 

1.  CoBBBLATiVES  OTc  oftcn  used :  Tam — quam,  as,  so — as,  as  much  as  ;  tarn — 
quam  quod  maxime,  as  mucJi.  as  possible;  non  minus — quam,  noi  less  than;  non 
mj5gis — quam,  not  more  than. 

Tam — quam  and  ut — Ita  with  a  superlative  are  sometimes  best  rendered  by  the 
with  the  comparative  :  ut  maxime — Ua  max\me,i\ie  more — the  more. 

III.  Conditional  Conjunctions  denote  condition  : 

Si  peccSvi,  ignosce.  If  I  have  erred,  pardon  me.  Cic.  Nisi  est  con- 
cilium ddmi,  unless  there  is  wisdom  at  home.  Cic.     See  also  311.  3 ;  503.  507. 

1.  Nisi,  if  not,  in  negative  sentences  often  means  except,  iind  nisi  quod,  except 
that,  may  be  used  even  in  affirmative  sentences.  I^lsi  may  mean  than.  Nihil  dliud 
nisi  =  nothing  further  (more,  except) ;  nihil  dliud  quam  =  nothing  else  (other 
than). 

IV.  Concessive  Conjunctions  denote  concession: 

Quamquam  intelllgunt,  though  they  understand.  Cic.  Etsi  nihil  hfibeat, 
although  he  has  nothing.  Cic.     See  also  311.  4;  515.  516. 

V.  Final  Conjunctions  denote  pui-pose  : 

Esse  dportet,  ut  vivas,  It  is  necessary  to  eat,  that  you  may  live.  Cic. 
See  also  311.  5  ;  489-499. 

VI.  Consecutive  Conjunctions  denote  consequence  or 
result : 

Attlcus  Ita  vixit,  ut  Athenienslbus  esset  cSrissImus,  Atticus  so  lived 
thai  he  was  very  dear  to  the  Athenians.  Nep.     See  also  311.  6  ;  489-499. 

VII.  Causal  Conjunctions  denote  cause  : 

Quae  quum  Ita  sint.  Since  these  things  are  so.  Cic.  See  also  811.  7 ; 
517.  618. 

Vjn.  Interrogative  Conjunctions  or  Particles  denote 
inquiry  or  question : 

QuaesiSras,  nonne  putSrem,  You  had  ashed  whether  I  did  not  think. 
Cic.     See  also  811.  8 ;  846.  II.,  525.  626. 


274  INTERJECTIONS.      RULES. 

lY.  Interjections. 

589.  Interjections  are  sometimes  used  entirely  alone, 
as  eheu^  alas !  and  sometimes  with  certain  cases  of  nouns. 
See  381  and  381.  3. 

590.  Various  parts  of  speech,  and  even  oaths  and  im- 
precations, sometimes  have  the  force  of  interjections.   Thus: 

Pax  (peace),  he  still!  mis^rum,  misSrabile,  sad,  lamentable!  ^vo,prayi 
Sge,  Sgite,  come,  well!  mehercules,  ly  Hercules!  per  deum  fidem,  in  the 
name  of  the  gods!  s5des  =  si  audes  {for  audies),  if  you  will  hear! 


CHAPTER   YII. 
ETTLES    OF    SYNTAX. 

591.  For  convenience  of  reference,  the  principal  Hules 
of  Syntax  are  here  introduced  in  a  body.  The  enclosed 
numerals  refer  to  the  various  articles  in  the  work  where  the 
several  topics  are  more  fully  discussed. 

NOUNS, 
Agreement. 

I.  A  Predicate  Noun  denoting  the  same  person  or 
thing  as  its  Subject,  agrees  with  it  in  case  (362)  : 

Ego  sum  nuntius,  I  am  a  messenger.  Liv. 

II.  An  Appositite  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  case  (363) : 
Cluilius  rex  moritur,  Cluilius  the  king  dies.  Liv. 

Nominative. 

III.  The  Subject  of  a  Finite  verb  is  put  in  the  Nomina- 
tive (367) : 

Servius  regnavit,  Servius  reigned.  Liv. 

Vocative. 

IV.  The  Name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  is  put 
in  the  Vocative  (369) : 

Perge,  Laeli,  Proceed,  Laelius.  Cic. 


eules  of  syktax.  275 

Accusative. 

V.  The  Direct  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the  Accu- 
sative (371) : 

Deus  mundum  aedif  icavit,  God  made  the  world.  Cic. 

VI.  Verbs  of  making,  choosing,  calling,  regarding, 
SHOWING,  and  the  like,  admit  two  Accusatives  of  the  same 
person  or  thing  (373)  : 

Hamilcarem  imp6ratOrem  fec6runt,  TJiey  made  Ilamilcar  commander. 
Nep. 

VII.  Some  verbs  of  asking,  demanding,  teaching,  and 
concealing,  admit  two  Accusatives  in  the  Active,  and  one 
in  the  Passive  (374): 

Me  sententiam  rogavit,  He  asked  me  my  opinion.  Cic. 

VIII.  Duration  of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space  are 
expressed  by  the  Accusative  (378) : 

Septem  et  triginta  regnSvit  annos,  He  reigned  thirty-seven  years.  Liv. 
Quinque  millia  passuum  ambul&re,  to  walk  Jive  miles.  Cic. 

IX.  The  Name  of  a  Town  used  as  the  Limit  of  motion 
is  put  in  the  Accusative  (379) : 

Nuntius  Romam  ri-dit,  The  messenger  returns  to  Home.  Liv. 

X.  A  Verb  or  Adjective  may  take  an  Adverbial  Accu- 
sative to  define  its  application  (380) : 

Capita  velamur,  We  have  our  heads  veiled.  Virg.  Nube  humeroB 
imictus,  with  his  shoulders  enveloped  in  a  cloud.  Hor. 

XI.  The  Accusative,  either  with  or  without  an  Interjec- 
tion, may  be  used  in  Exclamations  (381): 

Heu  me  misSrum,  Ah  me  unhappy  !  Cic. 

Dative. 

XII.  The  Indirect  Object  is  put  in  the  Dative  (384) : 
Temp6ri  c6dit,  He  yields  to  the  time.  Cic. 

Dative  of  Advantage  and  Disadvantage  (385). 
Dative  with  Compounds  (386). 
Dative  of  Possessor  (387). 
Dative  of  Apparent  Agent  (388). 
Ethical  Dative  (389). 

13 


276  EULES   OF   SYNTAX. 

XIII.  Two  Datives — the  object  to  which  and  the  ob- 
JECT  for  which — occur  with  a  few  verbs  (390) : 

Malo  est  hominibus  avaritia,  Avarice  is  (for)  an  evil  to  men.  Cic. 

XIY.  With  Adjectives  the  object  to  which  the  quality 
is  directed  is  put  in  the  Dative  (391) : 

Omnibus  carum  est,  It  is  dear  to  all.  Cic. 

XV.  A  few  Derivative  Nouns  and  Adverbs  take  the 
Dative  after  the  analogy  of  their  primitives  (392)  : 

Obtemperatio  l6gibus,  obedience  to  the  laws.  Cic.     Congruenter  natQ- 
rae,  agreeably  to  nature.  Cic. 

Genitive. 

XVI.  Any  noun,   not  an  Appositive,   qualifying   the 
meaning  of  another  noun,  is  put  in  the  Genitive  (395): 

Catonis  orationes,  Caio''s  orations.  Cic. 

XVII.  Many  Adjectives  take  a  Genitive  to  complete 
their  meaning  (399)  : 

Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise.  Cic. 

XVin.  A  Predicate  Noun  denoting  a  different  person 
or  thing  from  its  Subject,  is  put  in  the  Genitive  (401) : 

Omnia  hostium  erant,  All  things  belonged  to  (were  of)  the  enemy.  Li  v. 

XIX.  The  Genitive  is  used  (406), 

I.  With  mlsereor  and  miseresco : 
Miserere  laborum,  pity  the  labors.  Virg. 

II.  With  recorder,  memini,  reminiscor,  and  obliviscor: 
Meminit  praeteritorum,  He  remembers  the  past.  Cic. 

III.  With  refert  and  interest : 

Interest  omnium,  It  is  the  interest  of  all.  Cic. 

XX.  A  few  verbs  take  the  Accusative  of  the  Person 
and  the  Genitive  of  the  Thing  (410) : 

I.  Verbs  of  Reminding.,  Admonishing  : 

Te  amicitiae  commonfifacit,  He  reminds  you  of  friendship.  Cic. 

II.  Verbs  of  Accusing.,  Convicting^  Acquitting : 
Viros  scSlSris  arguis,  You  accuse  men  of  crime.  Cic. 

III.  Miseret,  JPoenitet,  Pudet.,  Taedet^  and  Piget  : 
ESrmn  noa  misSret,  We  pity  tlwm.  Cic. 


RULES   OF   SYNT^LX.  277 

For  the  Genitive  of  Place^  see  Rule  XXVI. 
Ablative. 

XXI.  Cause,  Manner,  and  Means  are  denoted  by  the 
Ablative  (414) : 

Utllitate  laudatur,  It  is  praised  because  of  its  usefulness.  Cic. 

XXII.  Price  is  generally  denoted  by  the  Ablative 
(416): 

Vendidit  auro  patriam,  He  sold  his  countt'y  for  gold.  Virg. 

XXIII.  Comparatives  without  quam  are  followed  by 
the  Ablative  (417): 

Nihil  est  Smabilius  virtute,  NoUmvg  is  more  lovely  than  virtue.  Cic. 

XXIV.  The  Measure  op  Difference  is  denoted  by 
the  Ablative  (418): 

Uno  die  longior,  longer  by  one  day.  Cic. 

XXV.  The  Ablative  is  used  (419), 

I.  With  utor,  fruor,  fimgor,  pbtior,  vescor,  and  their  com- 
pounds : 

Plurimis  rebus  fruimur,  We  enjoy  very  many  things,  Cic. 

II.  With  f  ido,  conf  ido,  nitor,  innitor : 

Stilus  veritate  nititur,  Safety  rests  upon  truth.  Cic. 

III.  With  Verbs  and  Adjectives  of  Plenty  and  Want  : 
Non  6geo  mfedicina,  Ido  not  need  a  remedy.  Cic. 

lY.  With  dignus,  indignus,  contentus,  and  fretiu : 
Digni  sunt  amicitia,  Th^y  are  worthy  of  fnendship.  Cic. 
V.  With  6pus  and  usus: 
Auctoritate  tua  nobis  opus  est,  We  need  your  authority.  Cic. 

XXVI.  I.  The  place  in  which  and  the  place  from 
WHICH  are  generally  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  a  Prepo- 
sition.    But 

II.  Names  op  Towns  drop  the  Preposition,  and  in  the 
Singular  of  the  First  and  Second  declensions  designate  the 
place  in  which  by  the  Locative  (421)  : 

In  Italia  fuit,  He  was  in  Italy.  Nep.  Ex  Africa,  from  Africa.  lav. 
Athenis  fuit,  He  was  at  Athens.  Cic.     ROmae  fuit,  He  was  at  Rome.  Cic. 

XXVTI.  Source  and  Separation  are  denoted  by  tb« 
Ablative,  generally  with  a  preposition  (425) : 


278  RULES   OF   SYNTAX. 

Oriundi  ab  Sablnis,  descended  from  the  Sabines.  Liv.     Caedem  a  vobis 
depello,  I  ward  off"  slaughter  from  you.  Cic. 

XXVIII.  The  Time  of  an  Action  is  denoted  by  the  Ab- 
lative (426) : 

Octogesimo  anno  est  mortuus,  He  died  in  his  eightieth  year.  Cic. 

XXIX.  The  Ablative  with  an  adjective  may  be  used 
to  characterize  a  person  or  thing  (428) : 

Summa  virtute  adolescens,  a  youth  of  the  highest  virtue.  Caes. 

XXX.  The  Ablative  may  be  used  with  a  word  to  de- 
fine its  application  (429) : 

Nomine,  non  potestate  fuit  rex,  Re  was  king  in  name,  not  in  power. 
Nep. 

XXXI.  The  Ablative  is  used  as  the  Case  Absolute 
(431): 

Servio  regnante,  in  the  reign  of  Servius  (Servius  reigning).  Cic. 

Cases  with  Prepositions. 

XXXII.  The  Accusative  and  Ablative  may  be  used 
with  Prepositions  (432) : 

Ad  Smicum,  to  a  friend.  Cic.     In  Italia,  in  Italy.  Nep. 

ADJECTIVES. 

XXXin.  An  Adjective  agrees  with  its  Noun  in  gen- 
der, NUMBER,  and  CASE  (438)  : 

Fortuna  caeca  est.  Fortune  is  blind.  Cic. 

PRONOUNS. 

XXXIV.  A  Pronoun  agrees  with  its  Antecedent  in 

GENDER,  NUMBER,  and  PERSON  (445)  I 

Animal,  quod  sanguinem  habet,  an  animal  which  has  blood.  Cic. 

VERBS. 

Agreement. 

XXXV.  A  Finite  Verb  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  num- 
ber and  PERSON  (460) : 

Ego  rgges  ejeci,  I  have  banished  kings.  Cic. 


bules  of  syntax.  279 

Indicative  Mood. 

XXX YI.  The  Indicative  is  used  in  treating  of  facts 
(474): 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  the  world.  Cic. 

Subjunctive  Tenses. 

XXXVII.  Principal    tenses   dej^end    upon    Principal 
tenses :  Historical,  upon  Historical  (480) : 

Nititur  ut  vincat,  He  strives  to  conquer.  Cic.     QuaesiSras  nonne  piita- 
rem,  You  had  asked  whether  J  did  not  think.  Cic. 

Subjunctive  Mood. 

XXXVIII.  The  Potential  Subjunctive  represents  the 
action  not  as  real,  but  as  possible  (485) : 

Forsitan  quaeratis,  perhaps  you  may  inquire.  Cic. 

XXXIX.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  represents  the 
action  not  as  real,  but  as  desired  (487) : 

V31eant  cives,  May  the  citizens  be  well.  Cic. 

XL.  The  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  or  Result  is  used 
(489), 

I.  With  ut,  ne,  quo,  quin,  quominus : 

Enltitur  ut  vincat,  He  strives  that  he  may  conquer.  Cic. 

II.  With  qui  =  ut  is,  ut  ^go,  tu,  etc. : 

Missi  sunt,  qui  {ut  ii)  consulSrent  ApoUinem,  They  were  sent  to  consult 
Apollo.  Nep. 

XLI.  The  Subjunctive  of  Condition  is  used  (503), 

I.  With  dum,  mSdo,  dumm&do: 

Modo  perm:ineat  industria,  if  only  industry  remains.  Cic. 

II.  With  ac  si,  at  si,  qu^  quam  si,  tanquam,  tanquam  si, 
v^lut,  v^lut  si: 

V61ut  si  5desset,  as  if  he  were  present.  Caes. 

III.  Sometimes  with  si,  nisi,  ni,  sin,  qui  =  si  is,  si  quis : 
Si  v61im  niimferare,  if  I  should  wish  to  recount.  Cic. 

XLII.  The  Subjunctive  of  Concession  is  used  (515), 
I.  With  licet,  quamvis,  quantumvis,  ut,  ne,  quum,  although: 
Licet  irrideat,  though  he  may  deride.  Cic. 


280  RULES    OP   SYNTAX. 

n.  With  qui  =  quum  (licet)  is,  quum  ego,  etc.,  though  he : 
Absolvite  Verrem,  qui  (quum  is)  fateatur,  Acquit  Verves^  though  he 
confesses.  Cic. 

III.  Generally  with  etsi,  tametsi,  etiamsi : 

Etsi  optimum  sit,  even  if  (though)  it  be  most  excellent.  Cic. 

XLIII.  The  Subjunctive  of  Cause  or  Reason  is  used 
(517), 

I.  With  quum  (cum),  since ;  qui  =  quum  is,  etc. 
Quum  vita  mStus  plena  sit,  since  life  is  full  of  fear.  Cic. 

II.  With  quod,  quia,  qubniam,  quando,  to  introduce  a  reason  on 
another's  authority : 

Quod  corrumpSret  juventutem,  because  (on  the  ground  that)  he  corrupt- 
ed the  youth.  Quint. 

XLIY.  The  Subjunctive  of  Time  with  the  accessory 
notion  of  Cause  or  Purpose  is  used  (521), 

I.  With  dum,  donee,  quoad,  until : 

Exspectas,  dum  dicat.  You  are  waiting  till  he  speaks^  i.  e.,  that  he  may 
speak.  Cic. 

II.  With  antequam,  priusquam,  before: 

AntSquam  de  re  publica  dicam,  before  I  (can)  speak  of  the  republic.  Cic. 

XLV.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  Indirect  Questions' 
(525) : 

Quid  dies  ferat,  incertum  est,  What  a  day  may  bring  forth  is  uncer' 
tain.  Cic. 

XL VI.  The  Subjunctive  by  Attraction  is  often  used  ii> 
clauses  dependent  upon  the  Subjunctive  (527) : 

Vereor,  ne,  dum  minuere  vglim  laborem,  augeam,  /  fear  I  shall  in 
crease  the  labor,  while  I  wish  to  diminish  it.  Cic. 

XLVII.  The  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  in  the  Inter- 
rogative, Imperative,  and  Subordinate  clauses  of  the  Oratio 
Obliqua  (529)  : 

Respondit,  cur  veniret,  He  replied,  why  did  he  come.  Caes.  Scribit 
Labieno  vfeniat,  Ife  writes  to  Labienus  to  come.  Caes. 

Imperative. 

XL VIII.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  commands,  exhor- 
tations, and  entreaties  (535)  : 

Justitiam  cole,  Practise  justice.  Cic. 


RULES   OP  SYNTAX.  281 


Infinitivb. 


XLIX.  The  Subject  of  an  Infinitive  is  put  in  the  Ac- 
cusative (545): 

Sentlmus  emigre  ignem,  We  perceive  tJiat  fire  is  hot  Cic. 

Participles,  Gerunds,  and  Supines. 

Participles  are  construed  as  adjectives  (575),  Gerunds 
and  Supines  as  nouns  (559,  567).     But 

L.  The  Supine  in  um  is  used  after  verbs  of  motion  to 
express  purpose  (569) : 

Venerunt  res  rfip^tltum,  TJiey  came  to  demand  restUviion.  Liv. 

PARTICLES. 

LI.  Adverbs  qualify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  ad- 
verbs (582)  : 

SSpientea  ftlidter  vivunt,  The  wise  live  happily.  Cic. 

1.  For  Prepositions,  see  Rule  XXXII. 

2.  Conjunctions  are  mere  connectives.     See  587  and  588. 

8.  Interjections  are  expressions  of  emotion  or  mere  marks  of  address. 
Bee  58^ 


CHAPTEE   YIII. 
AERANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  AND  CLAUSES. 


SECTION  I. 

ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS. 

592.  The  Latin  admits  of  great  variety  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  different  parts  of  the  sentence,  thus  affording 
pecuUar  facilities  both  for  securing  proper  emphasis  and  for 
imparting  to  its  periods  that  harmonious  flow  which  charac- 
terizes the  Latin  classics.  But  with  all  this  freedom  and 
variety,  there  are  certain  general  laws  of  arrangement  which 
it  will  be  useful  to  notice. 


282  AERANGEMENT   OF   WOEDS. 


I.  General  Rules. 

693.  The  Subject  followed  by  its  modifiers  occupies 
the  first  place  in  the  sentence,  and  the  Predicate  preceded 
by  its  modifiers  the  last  place : 

Sol  oriens  diem  conf  icit,  The  sun  rising  makes  the  day.  Cic.  Animug 
aeger  semper  errat,  A  diseased  mind  always  errs.  Cic.  Miitiades  Athenaa 
liberavit,  Miitiades  liberated  Athens.  Nep. 

594.  Emphasis  and  euphony  often  afiect  the  arrange- 
ment of  words : 

I.  Beginning. — Any  word,  except  the  subject,  may  be 
made  emphatic  by  being  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sentence : 

Silent  leges  inter  arma,  Laws  are  silent  in  loar.  Cic.  Numitdri  R&mus 
deditur,  Remus  is  delivered  to  Numitor.  Liv.  Igni  ager  vastabatur,  The 
field  was  ravaged  with  fire.  Sail. 

II.  End. — Any  word,  except  the  predicate,  may  be  ren- 
dered emphatic  by  being  placed  at  the  end  of  the  sentence : 

Nobis  noil  satisfacit  ipse  Demosthenes,  Even  Demosthenes  does  not  satisfy 
us.  Cic.  Consulatum  petivit  nunquam,  He  never  sought  the  consulship.  Cic. 
Exsistit  quaedam  quaestio  subdifficilis,  There  arises  a  question  somewhat  dif- 
ficult. Cic. 

III.  Separation. — Two  words  naturally  connected,  as 
a  noun  and  its  adjective,  or  a  noun  and  its  genitive,  are 
sometimes  made  emphatic  by  separation : 

Ohjurgdtiones  nonnunquam  incidunt  necessarian.  Sometimes  necessary  re- 
proofs occur.  Cic.  Justitiae  fungatur  oflFiciis,  Let  him  discharge  the  duties 
of  justice.  Cic. 

595.  Contrasted  Groups. — When  two  groups  of  words 
are  contrasted,  the  order  of  the  first  is  often  reversed  in  the 
second : 

Fragile  corpus  animus  sempiternus  mSvet,  The  imperishable  soul  moves 
the  perishable  tody.  Cic. 

596.  Kindred  Words. — ^Different  forms  of  the  same 
word,  or  difi*erent  words  of  the  same  derivation,  are  gener- 
ally placed  near  each  other : 

Ad  s§nem  sSnex  de  senectute  scripsi,  /,  an  old  man,  wrote  to  an  old  man 
on  the  subject  of  old  age.  Cic.  Inter  se  aliis  Slii  prosunt,  They  mvMally  bene- 
fit each  other.  Cic. 


ARRANGEMENT   OF   WORDS.  283 

697.  Words  with  a  common  Relation. — ^A  word 
which  has  a  common  relation  to  two  other  words  connected 
by  conjunctions,  is  placed, 

I.  Generally  before  or  after  both : 

PScis  et  artes  et  glSria,  both  the  arts  and  the  glory  of  peace.  Liv.  Belli 
pScisque  artes,  the  arts  of  war  and  of  peace.  Liv. 

A  Genitive  or  A<yective  following  two  nouns  may  qualify  both,  but  it  more  fre- 
quently qualifies  only  the  latter: 

Ilaec  percunctatlo  ac  denuntiatio  belli,  this  inquiry  and  this  declaration  of 
tear.  Liv. 

II.  Sometimes  directly  after  the  first  before  the  con- 
junction : 

H6n5ris  certamen  et  glSriae,  a  struggle  for  honor  and  glory.  Cic.  Agri 
omnes  et  m&ria,  all  lands  and  seas.  Cic. 

n.  Special  Rules. 

598.  Modifiers  of  Nouns. — The  modifiers  of  a  noun 
generally  follow  it.  They  may  be  either  adjectives  or 
nouns : 

PCpiilus  Romanus  d6cr6vit,  The  Roman  people  decreed.  Cic.  H6r5d5tus, 
pSter  histdriae,  Herodotus,  the  father  of  history.  Cic.  Liber  de  off Iciis,  th6 
book  on  duties.  Cic. 

1.  Noun. — A  noun  as  modifier  of  another  noun  is  generally  an  appositive, 
a  genitive,  or  a  case  with  a  preposition,  as  in  the  examples. 

2.  With  Emphasis. — Modifiers  when  emphatic  are  placed  before  theii 
nouns : 

Tuscus  &ger  RSmSno  adj&cet,  The  Tuscan  territory  borders  on  the  Roman. 
Liv.     Catonis  orStiSnes,  Colons  orations.  Cic. 

3.  Adjectivb  and  Genitive. — When  a  noun  is  modified  both  bj  an  ad- 
jective and  by  a  genitive,  the  usual  order  is,  adjective — genitive — noun  : 

Magna  civium  pfiuuria,  a  great  scarcity  of  citizens.  Cic. 

599.  Modifiers  of  Adjectives. — The  modifiers  of  the 
adjective  generally  precede  it,  but,  if  not  adverbs,  they  may 
follow  it ; 

F&clle  doctisslmus,  unquestionahly  the  most  learned.  Cic.  Omni  aetSti 
communis,  common  to  every  age.  Cic.    Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise.  Cic. 

600.  Modifiers  of  Verbs. — ^The  modifiers  of  the  verb 

generally  precede  it : 

Gloria  virtQtem  sSquItur,  Glory  follows  virtue.  Cic.  Mundus  deo  pSret, 
The  world  is  subject  to  God.  Cic.  Vehfementer  dixit,  lie  spoke  vehementlff, 
Cic.    Gloria  dQcltur,  Ife  is  led  by  glory.  Cic. 


284  ARRANGEMENT   OP   WORDS. 

1.  After  the  Verb. — "When  the  verb  is  placed  for  the  sake  of  emphasis 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  the  modifiers,  of  course,  follow.  See  first 
example  under  594.  I. 

2.  Emphasis. — An  emphatic  modifier  may  of  coarse  stand  at  the  begin- 
ning or  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  (594) : 

FScillime  cognoscuntur  adolescentes,  Most  easily  are  the  young  men  rec- 
ognized. Cic. 

3.  Two  OR  MORE  Modifiers. — Of  two  or  more  modifiers  belonging  to  the 
same  verb,  that  which  in  thought  is  most  intimately  connected  with  the  verb 
stands  next  to  it,  while  the  others  are  arranged  as  emphasis  and  euphony 
may  require : 

Rex  Scythis  bellum  intulit,  The  Mng  waged  war  against  the  Scythians. 
Nep.  Mors  propter  brfevitatem  vitae  nunquam  longe  abest,  Death  is  never 
far  distant^  in  consequence  of  the  shortness  of  life.  Cic. 

601.  Modifiers  of  Adverbs. — ^The  modifiers  of  the 
adverb  generally  precede  it,  but  a  Dative  often  follows  it : 

Valde  vehSmenter  dixit,  He  spoke  very  vehemently.  Cic.  Congrucnter 
naturae  vivit.  He  lives  agreeably  to  nature.  Cic. 

602.  Special  Words. — Some  words  have  a  favorite 
place  in  the  sentence,  which  they  seldom  leave.     Thus, 

I.  The  Demonstrative  generally  precedes  its  noun : 
Custos  hujus  urbis,  the  guardian  of  this  city.  Cic. 

1.  nie  in  the  sense  of  well-known  (450.  5)  generally  follows  its  noun,  if  not  ac- 
companied by  an  adjective: 

Medea  ilia,  that  well-Jcnown  Medea.  Cic 

2.  Quisque.  the  indefinite  pronoun,  follows  some  other  word: 

Justitia  suum  cuique  trTbuit,  Justice  gives  to  every  man  his  due  (his  own).  Ola 

II.  Prepositions  generally  stand  directly  before  their  cases,  but  tenvA 
*nd  versus  follow  their  cases : 

In  Asiam  profugit.  He  fled  into  Asia.  Cic.   Collo  tSnus,  up  to  the  neck.  0  v. 

1.  After  a  Pegnottn. — The  preposition  frequently  follows  the  relative,  some- 
times other  pronouns,  and  sometimes  even  nouns,  especially  in  poetry  : 

Ees  qua  de  agitur,  the  subject  of  which  we  are  treating.  Cic.  Italiam  contra, 
over  against  Italy.  Virg. 

2.  Cum  Appended.— See  184,  9  and  187,  3. 

8.  Inteevknikg  Words, — Genitives,  adverbs,  and  a  few  other  words  sometimes 
Btaad  between  the  preposition  and  its  case.  In  adjurations  per  is  usually  separated 
from  its  case  by  the  Ace.  of  the  object  adjured,  or  by  some  other  word ;  and  some- 
times the  verb  oro  is  omitted : 

Post  Alexandi'i  magni  mortem,  after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  Cic. 
Ad  bene  vivendum,/o7*  living  well.  Cic.  Per  te  deos  uro,  I  pray  you  in  the  name 
of  the  gods.  Ter.  Per  ego  vos  deos  =  per  deos  ego  vos  oro  {pro  understood).  1 
pray  you  in  the  name  of  the  gods.  Curt. 

III.  Conjf'-ndiom  and  Relatives,  when  they  introduce  clauses,  generally 


AREANGEMKNT   OF   WORDS   AND   CLAUSES.  285 

Stand  at  the  beginning  of  such  clauses ;  but  autem^  ^nim,  quidein,  quoque, 
vSro,  and  generally  igXtur,  follow  some  other  word  : 

Si  peccavi,  ignosce,  If  Ihuve  erredy  pardon  me.  Cic.  li  qui  supfiriores 
sunt,  tJiose  who  are  mperior.  Cic.  Ipse  autem  omnia  videbat,  But  he  him- 
self saw  all  things.  Cic. 

1.  Emphatic  Words  and  Relatives  often  precede  the  conjunction. 

Id  ut  audlvit,  as  he  heard  this.  Nep.  Quae  quum  ita  sint,  since  these  thingi 
are  so.  Cic 

2.  Ne— QUiDEM  takes  the  emphatic  word  or  words  between  the  two  parts : 
Ne  in  oppidis  quidein,  not  even  in  the  towns.  Cic 

8.  Quldem  often  {allows pronouns,  superlatives,  and  ordinals: 
Ex  me  quidem  nihil  audiet,  lie  will  hear  nothing  from  me.  Cic. 
4.  Que,  ve,ne,  introducing  a  clause  or  phrase,  arc  generally  appended  to  the  first 
word,  but  if  that  word  is  a  monosyllabic  preposition,  they  are  often  appended  to  the 
next  word:  ad  pUhemre,  for  adve,  etc.,  or  to  the  people;  infdroque  =  inquef('>ro, 
and  in  the  forum.    Apud  quosque,  and  before  whom,  occurs  for  euphony. 

IV.  Non^  when  it  qualifies  some  single  word,  stands  directly  before 
that  word,  but  when  it  is  particularly  emphatic,  or  qualifies  the  entire 
clause,  it  generally  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  clause : 

Hac  villa  cSrere  non  possunt.  They  are  not  able  to  do  without  this  villa. 
Cic.    Non  fuit  Jupiter  m^tuendus,  Jupiter  was  not  to  he  feared.  Cic. 

V.  Inquaniy  sometimes  Aio,  introducing  a  quotation,  follows  one  or 
more  of  the  words  quoted.  The  subject,  if  expressed,  generally  follows 
its  verb : 

Nihil,  inquit  Brutus,  quod  dicam.  Nothing  which  I  shall  state,  said 
Brutus.  Cic. 

VL  The  Vocative  rarely  stands  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence.  U 
usually  follows  an  emphatic  word  : 

Perge,  Laeli,  Proceed,  Laelius.  Cic. 

SECTION   II. 

ARRANGEMENT   OF  CLAUSES. 

I.  In  Complex  Sentences. 

603.  Subject  or  Predicate. — A  clause  used  as  the 
subject  of  a  complex  sentence  (357)  generally  stands  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  and  a  clause  used  as  the 
predicate  at  the  end  : 

Quid  dies  f^rat  incertum  est.  What  a  day  may  bring  forth  is  uncertain. 
Cic.  Exitus  fuit  orationis  :  sibi  nuUani  cum  his  Smicitiam  esse.  The  close 
of  the  oration  was,  that  he  had  no  friendship  with  these  men.  Caes. 

1.  This  arrangement  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  simple  sentence    See  593. 

2.  Emphasis  and  euphony  often  have  the  same  effect  upon  the  arrangement  of 
clauses  as  of  words.    See  59-i. 


286  ARRANGEMENT    OF    CLAUSES. 

604.  Subordinate  Elements. — Clauses  used  as  the 
subordinate  elements  of  complex  sentences,  admit  three 
different  arrangements : 

I.  They  are  generally  inserted  within  the  principal 
clause,  like  the  subordinate  elements  of  a  simple  sentence  : 

Hostes,  iibi  primum  nostros  equites  conspexfirunt,  celeriter  nostros 
perturbaverunt,  The  enemy,  as  soon  as  they  saw  our  cavaby,  quickly  put  our 
^men  to  route.  Caes.  Sententia,  quae  tutissima  videbatur,  vicit,  The  opinion 
[which  seemed  the  safest  prevailed.  Liv. 

IT.  They  are  often  placed  before  the  principal  clause : 

Quum  quiescunt,  probant,  While  they  are  quiet,  they  approve.  Cic.  Qua- 
Us  sit  animus,  animus  nescit,  The  soul  knows  not  what  the  soul  is.  Cic.  Si 
haec  civitas  est,  civis  sum  ego,  If  this  is  a  state  lam  a  citizen,  Cic. 

This  arrangement  is  especially  common  when  the  subordinate  clause  either  re- 
fers back  to  the  preceding  sentence,  or  is  preparatory  to  the  thought  of  the  principal 
clause.  Hence  temporal,  conditional,  and  concessive  clauses  often  precede  the  prin- 
cipal clause.  Hence  also,  in  sentences  composed  of  correlative  clauses  with  is — qui, 
talis— qudlis,  tantus — quantus,  turn— quum,  ita—ut,  etc.,  the  relative  member,  i.  e., 
the  clause  with  qui,  qudlis,  quantus,  quum,  ut,  etc.,  generally  precedes. 

III.  They  sometimes  follow  the  principal  clause : 

Enltitur  ut  vincat,  He  strives  that  he  may  conquer.  Cic.  Sol  efFicit  ut 
omnia  floreant,   2^he  sun  causes  all  things  to  bloom.  Cic. 

This  arrangement  is  common  when  the  subordinate  clause  is  either  intimately 
connected  in  thought  with  the  following  sentence  or  is  explanatory  of  the  principal 
clause.  Hence  clauses  of  Purpose  and  Result  generally  follow  the  principal  clause, 
as  in  the  examples.    See  also  examples  under  articles  489-499. 

605.  Latin  Period. — A  complex  sentence  in  which 
the  subordinate  clause  is  inserted  within  the  principal  clause, 
as  under  I.,  is  called  a  Period  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word. 

In  a  freer  sense  the  same  term  is  also  applied  to  any 
sentence  in  which  the  clauses  are  so  arranged  as  not  to 
make  complete  sense  before  the  end  of  the  sentence.  In 
this  sense  the  examples  under  II.  are  periods. 

II.  In  Compound  Sentences. 

606.  Clauses  connected  by  coordinate  conjunctions 
(.^ST)  generally  follow  each  other  in  the  natural  order  of 
the  thought,  as  in  English  : 

Sol  ruit  et  monies  umbrantur.  The  sicn  descends  and  the  mountains  are 
shaded.  Virg.  Gyges  a  nullo  videbatur,  ipse  autem  omnia  videbat,  Gyges 
was  seen  by  no  one,  but  he  himself  saw  all  things.  Cic. 


PART  FOURTH. 

PROSODY. 

607.  Prosody  treats  of  Quantity  and  Versification, 


CHAPTER    I 


aUANTITY. 

608.  The  time  occupied  in  pronouncing  a  syllable  in 
poetry  is  called  its  quantity.  Syllables  are  accordingly 
characterized  as  lo7ig^  shorty  or  common.^ 

609.  The  quantity  of  syllables  is  determined  by  poetic 
usage.  But  this  usage  conforms  in  many  cases  to  general 
laws,  while  in  other  cases  it  seems  somewhat  arbitrary. 

1.  Syllables  whose  quantity  conforms  to  known  rules  are  said  to  be  long 
or  short  by  rule. 

2.  Syllables  whose  quantity  does  not  conform  to  known  rules  are  said  to 
be  long  or  short  by  authority. 

3.  The  rules  for  quantity  are  either  general,  i.  e,,  applicable  to  most  syl- 
lables, or  »j)ecial,  i.  e.,  applicable  to  particular  syllables. 


SECTION"  I. 

OEKERAL   RULES   OF  QUANTITY. 

610.  Rule  I. — Diphthongs  and  Contracted  syllables 
are  long  : 

ITaec,  coona,  aura ;  alius  for  aliius,  eogo  for  coigo,  occldo  for  occae- 
do,  nil /or  niliil. 

1.  Prae  in  composition  is  usually  short  before  a  vowel :  praedcutus, 
praeustus. 

2.  Ua,  ue,  ui,  no,  and  uu,  are  not  strictly  diphthongs,  and  accordingly 
do  not  come  under  this  rule. 

'  Sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short. 


288  RULES    OF   QUANTITY. 

611.  Rule  II. — A  vowel  is  long  by  position  before 
j^  X,  ^,  or  any  two  consonants :  * 

Major,  rexi,  gaza,  mensa,  servus. 

1.  But  one  of  the  consonants  at  least  must  belong  to  the  same  word  as 
the  vowel :  db  rupe,  per  saxa. 

1)  A  final  vowel  is  not  usually  affected  by  consonants  at  the  beginning  of 
the  following  word,  except  before  sc,  sp,  sq,  and  st,  where  a  short  vowel  is 
rare. 

2)  ^and  C^must  never  be  treated  as  consonants  under  this  rule,"  except 
in  rare  instances  where  u  is  so  used  by  Synaeresis.    See  669.  II. 

2.  Before  a  mute  followed  by  Z  or  -R,  a  vowel  naturally  short  becomea 
common :  duplex,  agri,  patres. 

1)  In  Greek  words  a  vowel  is  also  common  before  a  mute  with  Mov  N: 
Tecmessa,  cycnus. 

2)  A  mute  at  the  end  of  the  first  part  of  a  compound  before  a  liquid  at 
the  beginning  of  the  second  part  makes  the  preceding  vowel  long  by  posi- 
tion: ab-rumpo,  ohrbgo. 

3)  A  vowel  naturally  long,  of  course,  remains  long  before  a  Mute  and 
Liquid :  acer,  deris. 

3.  Compounds  of  jugum  retain  the  short  vowel  before  j :  bijuguSy 
quadrijugus. 

612.  EuLE  III. — A  vowel  before  another  vowel,  or 
a  diphthong,  is  short  by  position  : 

Pius,  piae,  docfio,  traho. 

No  acconnt  is  taken  of  the  breathing  h\  hence  a  in  traho  is  treated  as  a  vowel 
before  another  vowel. 

Exceptions. — The  following  are  long  before  a  vowel : 

1.  A,— (1)  in  the  genitive  ending  ai  of  Dec.  I. :  auldi,—(2)  in  proper 
names  in  dius  :  Cdius  (Cajus),— (3)  before  ia,  ie,  io,  iu,  in  the  verb  aio. 

2.  E. — (1)  in  the  ending  ei  of  Dec.  V.  when  preceded  by  a  vowel :  diei; 
and  sometimes  in  ftdei,  rei,   8pei,—(2)  in  proper  names  in  eius :  Pom- 

peius, — (3)  in  Iheu. 

3.  I,— (1)  in  the  verb  flo,  when  not  followed  by  er :  flam^fiebam,  but 
f^ri, — (2)  in  the  genitive  alius.  In  other  genitives  i  in  ius  is  common  in 
poetry,  though  long  in  prose,  but  the  i  in  altenvs  is  short, — (3)  in  dlxis,  Of 
um,  for  diviis,  a,  um, — (4)  sometimes  in  Diana. 

4.  O, — is  common  in  bTie. 

^  Strictly  speaking,  the  syllable,  and  not  the  vowel,  is  lengthened,  but  the  language 
of  convenience  refers  the  quantity  of  the  syllable  to  the  vowel. 

2  Qu,  gu,  and  «?*,  when  u  has  the  sound  of  «o,  are  treated  as  single  consonants. 


BULKS   OF   QUANTITY.  289 

5.  In  Greek  words  vowels  are  often  long  before  a  vowel,  because  long  in 

the  original :  aer^  Aenias,  Bfisiis,  Meneldus,  Troes. 

This  often  occurs  in  proper  names  in — ea,  Iti,  ivs,  lu8,  don^  Ion,  <2i«,  dis,  oitis: 
Medga,  Alexandria,  PCnGos,  Darius,  Orion. 


SECTION  II. 

SPECIAL  RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 

I.    Quantity   of   Final   Syllables. 

I.  Monosyllables, 

613.  Rule  IY. — Monosyllables  are  long : 

&,  da,  te,  86,  de,  si,  qui,  do,  pro,  tQ,  dos,  pes,  sis,  bos,  sQs,  pSr,  soL 

Exceptions. — The  following  are  short : 

1.  Enclitics  :  ^m5,  «e,  rie^  ce,  te,  pse,  pte. 

2.  Monosyllables  in  b,  d,  1,  nij  t:  ah,  o,d,fil,  sum,  et ;  except  8dl,  sol.- 
8.  An,  bis,  cis,  cor,  es,  fac,  fer,  in,  is,  nee,  6s  (ossis),  per,  tir,qiUi  (indef- 
inite),   quis,  vir ;  probably  also  vds  (v&dis),  and  sometimes  TmIc  and  hdc  as 
Nom.  or  Ace.  forms. 

II.  Polysyllables. 

1.     FINAL     VOWELS. 

614.  Rule  Y. — In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable, 
the  endings  a,  e,  and  y  are  short ;  i  and  u,  long ;  o^ 
common : 

Via,  maris,  mare,  misy;  mari,  audi,  fructu,  cornQ;  5m8,  serm6. 

615.  A.  Jinalis  short:  mensd,  templd,  bond. 

Exceptions. — A  final  is  long, 

1.  In  the  Ablative  :  mensd,  h6nd.  Hid. 

2.  In  the  Vocative  of  Greek  nouns  in  as  (rarely  es)  :  Aenld,  Palld. 

3.  In  Verbs  and  Indeclinable  words:  dmd,  curd;  circa,  jiixid,  anted, 
frwtrd.    Except  itd,  quia,  ^a,  and  piUd  used  adverbially. 

616.  E  final  is  short :  serve^  urbe.^  rege. 
Exceptions. — E final  is  long, 

1.  In  Dec.  I.  and  V. :  epUdmi,  ri,  dii.  Hence  in  the  compounds— hddO, 
pndii,  postridH,  qudri. 

2.  In  Greek  plurals  of  Doc.  III. :  Tempi,  rmU. 


290  RULES    OF   QUANTITY. 

3.  In  the  Sing.  Imperative  Act.  of  Conj.  II. :  mone,  doce.  But  e  is  some- 
times short  in  cm%. 

4.  \u  fere,  ferrn^,  olie,  and  in  Adverbs  from  adjectives  of  Dec.  II.:  dodi^ 
recte.    Except  beney  male,  infeme,  interne,  mperrCe. 

Q17.  "^ Jlnal  is  short :  mlsf/^  molif^  cotp. 

ExcEPTioxs.— Contracted  endings  are,  of  course,  long :  mi»g  =  muyi. 

6 1 8.  I  Jinal  is  long :  seroi^  hOni^  audi. 

Exceptions. — I  Jinal  is, 

1.  Common  in  mihi,  tibi,  dbi,  ill,  ubi.    But 

Observe  compounds  Ihldem^  IMque,  Uhlque,  ublnam,  ublvls,  ublcunque,  nScH- 
M,  slciibi. 

2.  Short, — (1)  in  nM,  quasi,  cm  (when  a  dissyllable), — (2)  in  the  Greek 
ending  si  of  Dat.  and  Abl.  Plur. :  Troasl, — (3)  in  the  Dat.  and  Voc.  Sing., 
which  end  short  in  the  Greek :  Alexi,  Paridi. 

Vfl  follows  the  rule,  but  not  the  compounds,  ijdinam,  utlque,  slcutl. 

619.  IT  Jinal  is  long :  Jructu,  cornu^  dictu. 
Exceptions. — Indu  for  in,  and  nl^&  for  non. 

620.  O  final  is  common :  dmo,  sermo^  virgo, 

ExcEPiJoyiS.— 0  Jinal  is, 

1.  Long, — (1)  in  Datives  and  Ablatives :  servo,  Hid,  quo, — (2)  in  Greek 
words,  when  it  represents  a  long  Greek  vowel :  echo,  Argo, — (3)  in  Adverbs: 
faUo,  multb,  ergo,  quandb,  omnlnb ;  except  those  mentioned  under  2  below. 

2.  Short  in  duo,  ego,  odd,  and  the  adverbs  did,  illico,  immo,  modo,  and 
its  compounds,  dummodo,  qwmddd,  etc. 


2.   FINAL   SYLLABLES  IN  MUTES   OR  LIQUIDS, 

C,  D,  L,  M,  N,  R,  T. 

621.  Rule  YI. — In  words  of  more  tlian  one  syl- 
lable, 

Final  syllables  in  c  are  long ; 

Final  syllables  in  d,  1,  m,  n,  r,  t,  are  short : 

alec,  illQc ;  illud,  consul,  Smgm,  carmSn,  amor,  caput. 

Exceptions. — The  following  occur, 

1.  IMnec  and  lien. 

2.  M  Jinal  with  the  preceding  vowel  is  generally  elided  before  a  vowel. 
See  669. 1. 


RULES    OP   QUANTITY.  291 

3.  In  Greek  words, — (1)  en  is  long;  often  also  an,  in,  on,  yn:  Hymin, 
Anchuin,  TUdn,  Delphin,  Aciaedn,  Phorcyn,—{2)  er  is  long  in  aer,  aetUr, 
trdter,  and  a  few  other  words  with  loug  ending  iu  the  original. 

4.  This  rule  does  not,  of  course,  apply  to  syllables  long  by  previoua 
rules. 

3.   PINAL   SYLLABLES   IN   S. 

622.  Rule  YII. — In  words  of  more  than  one  syl- 
lable, the  endings  as,  es,  and  os  are  long ;  is,  us,  ys, 
short : 

amas,  mensas,  mongs,  nubCs,  hos,  servos ;  avis,  urbis,  boniis.  servus, 
chldmys. 

623.  Ajs  final  is  long :  Ae?iecis,  bonds,  illas. 

Exceptions. — As  final  is  short, 

1.  In  anas  and  in  a  few  Greek  nouns  in  as  :  Areas,  lampa*. 

2.  In  Greek  Accusatives  of  Dec.  III. :  Arcadas,  htroas. 

624.  Es  final  is  long :  nubes,  mones. 

Exceptions. — Es  final  is  short, 

1.  In  Nominatives  Singular  of  Dec.  III.,  which  increase  short  in  the 
Gen.:  miles  (Jtis),  obses  (Idis),  interpres  (6tis).  Except  abi^,  artis, pariis, 
Ceris,  and  compounds  of  pis;  as  bipis,  tripes,  etc. 

2.  In  penes  and  the  compounds  ofes  ;  as  odes,  poles. 

3.  In  Greek  words, — (1)  in  the  plural  of  those  which  increase  in  the  Gen. : 
Arcades,  Troades, — (2)  in  a  few  neuters  in  es :  Uippornenes, — (3)  in  a  few 
Vocatives  singular :  DemoslMties. 

625.  Ob  final  is  long :  custos,  viros, 

ExczPTio^s.— Os  final  is  short, 

1.  In  compos,  impos,  exos. 

2.  In  Greek  words  with  the  ending  short  in  the  Greek :  Dilds,  melds. 

626.  1b  final'is  short:  avis,  cdnis. 

Exception's. — Is  final  is  long, 

1.  In  Plural  Cases  :  mensis,  servis,  vdbis. 
Henco/drU,  grdtls,  ingrdtls. 

2.  In  Nominatives  of  Dec.  III.,  increasing  long  in  the  Gen. :  Qutria  (Itis), 
Salamis  (inis). 

3.  In  the  Sing.  Pres.  Indie.  Act.  of  Conj.  IV. :  at/dis. 
Mdvls,  qulvls,  Utervis  follow  the  quantity  of  vis. 

4.  In  the  Sing.  Pres.  Subjunct.  Act. :  possis,  veils,  ndlis,  mails. 

5.  Sometimes  in  the  Sing,  of  the  Fut.  Perf.  and  of  the  Perf.  Subj. :  awwi* 
veris,  ddcueris. 


292  EULES   OF   QUANTITY. 

627.  XSb  final  is  short :  servus,  bonus. 

Exceptions. —  Us  final  is  long, 

1.  In  Nominatives  of  Dec.  III.  increasing  long  in  the  Gen. :  tiiriAis  (utSs), 
tellm  (uris). 

But  pdlUs  (u  short)  occurs  in  Horace.    Ars  P.  65. 

2.  In  Dec.  IV.,  in  the  Gen.  Sing.,  and  in  the  Nom.  Ace.  and  Voc.  Plur.» 
fructus. 

3.  In  Greek  words  ending  long  in  ths  original :  PantJms^  Sapphus,  iripus. 
But  we  have  Oedlpiis  and  polypus. 

628.  TTsfinalis  short:  chldmps,  chelps. 

Exceptions. — Contracted  endings  are  of  course  long :  Eryrmys  for  Eryn- 
nyea. 

II.  Quantity  in  Increments. 

629.  A  word  is  said  to  increase  in  declension,  when  it 
has  in  any  case  more  syllables  than  in  the  nominative  singu- 
lar, and  to  have  as  many  increments  of  declension  as  it  has 
additional  syllables:  sermo,  sermonis^  sermonibus. 

SermonU,  having  one  syllable  more  than  sermo,  has  one  increment,  -while  ser- 
morvibus  has  two  increments. 

630.  A  verb  is  said  to  increase  in  conjugation,  when  it 
has  in  any  part  more  syllables  than  in  the  second  person 
singular  of  the  present  indicative  active,  and  to  have  as 
many  increments  of  conjugation  as  it  has  additional  sylla- 
bles: dmds,  dmdtis,  dmdbdtis. 

Amdtis  has  one  increment,  dmabdtis  two. 

631.  If  there  is  but  one  increment,  it  is  uniformly  the 
penult,  if  there  are  more  than  one,  they  are  the  penult  with 
the  requisite  number  of  syllables  before  it.  The  increment 
nearest  the  beginning  of  the  word  is  called  the  first  incre- 
ment, and  those  following  this  are  called  successively  the 
second.,  third.,  ^xi^  fourth  increments.     Thus 

1    Q 
In  8er-mon-%-hu8,  the  first  increment  is  mon,  the  second  i ;  and  in  mon" 
r  2    3 
^-e-ra-mu8,  the  first  is  u,  the  second  e,  the  third  ra. 

I,  Increments  of  Declension, 

632.  EuLB  YIII.— In  the  Increments  of  Declen- 
ision,  a  and  o  are  long ;  e,  i,  u,  and  y,  short : 

aetas,  aetatis,  aetatibus ;   serine,  sermonis ;  puer,  puSri,  pudrorum ; 


EULES   OF   QUANTITY.  293 

fulgur,  fulgurifl;   chlSmys,  chlamydis;   bonus,  bonarum,  bonorum;  ille, 
illarum,  illortun ;  miser,  mis6ri ;  supplex,  supplicia ;  satur,  saturi. 

Vowels  long  or  short  by  position  are  of  course  excepted. 

633.  A  in  the  increments  of  declension  is  long :  paxy 
pads  j  bonuSy  bonarum/  duo,  dudbus. 

Exceptions. — A  is  short  in  the  first  increment, 

1.  Of  masculines  in  al  and  ar :  Eannibaly  Hannibalis ;  Caesar^  Caesaria. 
Except  Car  and  I^ar. 

2.  Of  nouns  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant:  daps,  dapis  ;  Arabs,  ArabU. 

3.  Of  Greek  nouns  in  a  and  ^:  poema,  poematis ;  Fallas,  Falladis. 

4.  Of  the  following: — (1)  baccar,  Jiepar,  Jubar,  lar,  nectar,  par  and  its 
compounds, — (2)  anas,  mas,  vas  (v&dis), — (3)  sal,  fax,  and  a  few  rare  Greek 
words  in  ax. 

634.  O  in  the  increments  of  declension  is  long:  honor, 
honoris  y  bonus,  bonorum  j  duo,  duobus. 

Exceptions- — 0  is  short  in  the  first  increment, 

1.  Of  Neuter.-*  in  Decl.  III. :  aequor^  aequoris  ;  tempus^  temporis.  Except 
08  (Oris),  ador  (ad(5ris),  and  comparatives. 

2.  Of  words  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant ;  inops,  indpis.  Except  Cy- 
clops and  hydrops. 

3.  Of  arbor,  bos,  Vepus, — compos,  impos,  memor,  immemor, — AllobroXy 
Cappadcx,  praecox. 

4.  Of  most  Patrials :  Ma<xdo,  Macedonis. 

5.  Of  many  Greek  nouns,— (1)  those  in  or:  rhHor,  Hector, — (2)  many 
in  o  and  on  increasing  short  in  Greek :  aedon,  aedonis, — (3)  in  Greek  com- 
pounds in  pus :  tripus  (5dis),  Oedipus. 

635.  E  in  the  increments  of  declension  is  short :  puer^ 
pueri;  liber,  liberi. 

Exceptions. — ^^is  long  in  the  first  increment, 

1.  Of  Decl.  v.,  except  in  the  forms /tJei,  rei,  and  »pei;  as  diH,  di^um, 
diibus,  rebus. 

2.  Of  nouns  in  en,  mostly  Greek :  It^,  lUnis;  Siren,  Sirinis.  So  Anio, 
Aniinis. 

8.  Of  Celtiber,  Iber,  ver, — JiSres,  Idc&ples,  merces,  quies,  inquies,  requies, 
plebs, — lex,  rex,  alec,  alex,  vervex. 

4.  Of  a  few  Greek  words  in  es  and  er,  except  a^  and  aether ;  as  Wbes, 
Ithais  ;  crater,  craieris. 

636.  I  in  the  increments  of  declension  is  short :  mlles^ 
mllitis,  militibus ;  anceps,  ancipUis. 

Exceptions. — /is  long  in  the  first  increment, 

1.  Of  most  words  in  ix:  radix,  ra  diets  /  felix,  feliois. 

Bat  short  in  :  appendix,  edlix,  CUix,/Uiw,  fornix,  nix,  pix,  sdlix,  tMsB,  and  a 
few  others,  chiefly  proper  namea. 


294  EULES   OF   QUANTITY. 

2.  Of  dis,  glis,  lis,  vis,  Quiris,  Samnis. 

3.  Of  delfhin  aud  a  few  rare  Greek  words. 

4.  For  quantity  of  the  ending  ins,  see  612.  3. 

637.  U  in  the  increments  of  declension  is  short :  dux^ 
duels  ;  arcuSy  arcuhus  y  sdtur^  saturi. 

Exceptions. —  V"\&  long  in  the  first  increment, 

1.  Of  nouns  in  us  with  the  genitive  in  uris,  utis,  udls :  jus,  juris;  solus, 
salutis  ;  pdlus,  paludis.    Except  intercus,  Ligus,  pecus. 

2.  Oifur,frux,  lux^  plus^  Pollux. 

638.  Y  in  the  increments  of  declension  is  short :  chld- 
mys^  chlampdis. 

Exceptions. — This  increment  occurs  only  in  Greek  words,  and  is  long  in 
those  in  yn,  ynis,  and  in  a  few  others. 

U.  Increments  of  Conjugation, 

639.  Rule  IX. — In  the  Increments  of  Conjugation 
(630),  a,  e,  and  o  are  long ;  i  and  u  short : 

amamus,  amemus,  amatote,  regimus,  siimus. 

1.  In  ascertaiuing  the  increments  of  the  irregular  verbs,  fero,  volo,  and  their 
compounds,  the  full  form  of  the  second  person,  feris,  volis,  etc.,  must  be  used.  Thu» 
in  fSrebam  and  volebam,  the  increments  are  re  and  U. 

2.  In  ascertaining  the  increments  of  reduplicated  forms  (254),  the  reduplication 
is  not  counted.    Thus  d6d\mu%  has  but  one  increment  di. 

640.  A  in  the  increments  of  conjugation  is  long; 
dmdre. 

Exceptions. — A  is  short  in  the  first  increment  of  do :  dare,  dabam,  cir- 
cumdabam. 

641.  E  in  the  increments  of  conjugation  is  long:  mo- 
nere. 

Exceptions.— J"  is  short  before  r, 

1.  In  the  tenses  in  ram,  rim,  ro:  dmdveram,  amaverim,  amavero ;  rex- 
erat,  rexerit. 

2.  In  first  increment  of  the  Present  and  Imperfect  of  Conj.  III.  i  regere, 
regeris,  regerem,  regerer, 

3.  In  the  Fut.  ending  beris,  here :  amdberis,  or  -6re,  morteberis. 

4.  Rarely  in  the  Perf.  ending  erunt :  steterunt  for  steterunt.  See  235, 
also  Systole,  669.  IV. 

642.  O  in  the  increments  of  conjugation  is  long  with^ 
out  exception  :  monetote,  regitote. 


BULES   OP   QUANTITY.  295 

643.  I  in  the  increments  of  conjugation  is  short :  regv- 
its,  reximus. 

Exceptions. — /is  long,  except  before  a  vowel, 

1.  In  the  first  increment  of  Conj.  IV.,  except  imus  of  the  Perf. :  audire, 
attdivi,  auditum  ;  sentio,  seniimua,  sensimus  (perf.). 

2.  In  Conj.  III.  in  the  first  increment  of  perfects  and  supines  in  Ivi  and 
itum  (276.  III.)  and  of  the  parts  derived  from  them  (except  vmus  of  Perf.  :^ 
trivwius) :  cupivi,  cuplverat,  cupitus  ;  pUlvi,  petltus ;  capemvi,  capessUurusS 
Odvisiis  from  gaudeo  follows  the  same  analogy. 

3.  In  the  endings  imus  and  itis  of  Pres.  Subj. :  simus,  sUis ;  velimus, 
nelUis  (289. 8). 

4.  In  nOlite,  nolUo,  nolUdte,  and  in  the  different  persons  of  ibain,  ibo, 
from  eo  (295). 

5.  Sometimes  in  the  endings  HmilS  and  ritis  of  the  Fut.  Perf.  and  Perf. 
Subj. :  dmdvenmns,  amdverUis. 

Q4A.  U  in  the  increments  of  conjugation  is  short ;  volu- 
mus. 

Exceptions. —  C^is  long  in  the  Supine  and  the  parts  formed  from  it: 
tdlutum,  voluiurus,  amdturus. 


UL  Quantity  of  Deefvative  Endings. 

645.  KuLE  X. — The  following  derivative  endings 
have  the  penult  long : 

I.  abrum,  acrum,  atrum ; 

flabrum,  simulacrum,  Sratrum. 

II.  edo,  ido,  udo  j  ago,  Igo,  iigo : 

dulcedo,  cupido,  sdlltudo ;  vorago,  origo,  aerugo. 

III.  aia,  eis,  ois,  otis,  ine,  one — in  patronymics  : 
Ptolemais,  Chryseis,  Minois,  IcSriotis,  Nerine,  Acrisione. 
Except  Ddndis,  Phocdis,  Theb(Hs,  Neriis. 

I Y.  ela,  He ;  alls,  ells,  ulis : 

querela,  ovile ;  mortalis,  f  idfilis,  ciirulis. 

y.  anus,  enus,  onus,  unus ;  ana,  ena,  ona,  una : 
urbanus,  ggenus,  patronus,  trlbunus ;  membrana,  habgna,  annOna,  !&• 
eOna. 

Except  galbdmie. 

VI.  aris,  arus ;  orus,  osus ;  avug,  Ivus : 

flilutarifl,  avarus ;  canorus,  animosus ;  octavus,  aestlvus. 


296  EULES    OF    QUANTITY. 

VII.  atus,  itus,  utus  ;  atim,  itim,  utim ;  etum,  eta  i 

alatus,  turritus,  cornutus ;  singulatim,  viritim,  tributim  >  querc6tum, 

moiieta. 

Except  (1)  dnhelUus^fortuitus^  grdtultus,  hdlltus,  hospHtua,  servltus,  8plriiii% 
(2)  affdtim,  stdtim,  and  adverbs  in  litis,  as  dwlnltus;  and  (8)  participles  provided  for 
by  639. 

VIII.  eni,  ini,  5ni, — in  distribtUives  : 
sept6ni,  quini,  octoni. 

646.  EuLE  XI. — The  following  derivative  endings 
have  the  penult  short : 

I.  ^des,  iades,  ides, — in  patronymics : 
Aeneades,  Laertiades,  Tantalides. 

Except  (1)  those  in  Ides  from  nouns  in  eua  and  es  ;  as,  Pelldes  (Peleus),  Neo- 
(Hides  (Neocles),  and  (2)  Amphidrdides,  Amy  elides,  Mlides,C6r6nldes,  Lpcm'gldes. 

II.  iacus,  icus,  idus : 

Coriuthiacus,  modicus,  cupidus. 

Except  dmlcus,  antlcus,  aprlcvs,  mendlcus,  posticus,  pUdlcus. 

III.  blus,  ola,  Slum ;  ulus,  ula,  ulum ;  cuius,  cula,  culum, — in 

diminutives : 

f  iliolus,  f  iliola,  atriolum ;  hortulus,  virgula,  oppidiilum ;  flosculus, 
particiila,  munusculum. 

rV.  etas,  itas, — in  nouns  ;  iter,  itus, — in  adverbs : 
pietas,  Veritas ;  fortiter,  dlvinitus. 

V.  atilis,  ilis,  bilis, — in  verbals  ;  inus, — in  adjectives  denoting  ma- 
terial or  time  : 

versatilis,  docilis,  amabilis ;  adamantinus,  cedrinus,  crastinus,  diutinus. 

Except  mdtutlnus,  rSpenUnus,  xiespertlnus. 

1.  Tli«  in  adjectives  from  nouns  usually  has  the  penult  long :  cwilis,  Ties, 
tiUs,  puerllis,  virllis. 

2.  Inus  denoting  characteristic  (325)  usually  has  the  penult  long :  canl 
nus,  eguinus,  marinus. 

647.  Rule  XII. — The  following  derivative  endings 
have  the  antepenult  long : 

I.  aceus,  uceus,  aneus,  arius,  arium,  orius : 

rosaceus,  pannuceus,  siibitaneus,  cibarius,  columbarium,  censorius. 

II.  abilis,  atilis,  aticus : 
&nabilis,  versatilis,  fiquaticus. 


RULES   OF   QUANTITY.  297 

III.  aginta,  iginti,  esimus, — in  numerals : 
noiiagiuta,  viginti,  centeslmus. 

648.  KuLE  XIII. — ^The  foUowing  derivative  endings 
have  the  antepenult  short : 

I.  ibilis,  itudo,  filentus,  ulentus . 

credibflis,  solitude,  vinoleutus,  opulentus. 

II.  lixio, — in  dmderatives : 
$surio,  empturio,  parturio. 

IV.  Quantity  of  Stem  Syllables. 

I.  In  Primitives. 

649.  The  quantity  of  stem-syllables  in  primitive  words, 
when  not  determined  by, the  General  Rules  (Sec.  L),  is  in 
most  cases  best  referred  to  authority.     Thus, 

In  mSter,  c6do,  scribo,  dSno,  ator,  the  first  syllable  is  long  hy  authority y 
while  in  piter,  t6go,  mico,  s6no,  liter,  it  is  ahort  by  authority. 

650.  Rule  XIV. — ^The  quantity  of  stem-syllables 
remains  unchanged  in  inflection : 

In  DECLENSION, — Svls,  5vem ;  nQbes,  nubium. 
In  COMPARISON, — Ifivis,  ISvior,  Igvissimus. 
In  CONJUGATION, — moneo,  monebam,  monui. 

1.  Position  may  however  affect  the  quantity:  ager,  dgri  (611,  612); 
possum,  p6tui  /  solve,  soluiujn  /  volvo,  volutum. 

Here  d  becomes  &  before  gr.  The  o  in  possum,  solco,  and  volvo,  long  only  by 
position,  becomes  short  before  a  single  consonant. 

2.  Gigno  gives  genui,  genUum,  and  pono,  p6sui,  pdsUum. 

3.  See  also  651,  652. 

651.  Dissyllabic  Perfects  and  Supines  have  the  first  syl- 
lable long,  unless  short  by  position : 

jiivo,  juvi,  jQtum ;  foveo,  fovi,  fotum. 

1,  These  Perfects  and  Supines,  if  formed  from  Presents  with  the  first 
■yllable  short,  are  exceptions  to  650. 

2.  Seven  Perfects  have  the  first  syllable  short: 
i'ibi,  dSdi,fidi,  scidiy  sUti,  gfUi,  tuli. 


298  RULES    OF   QUAI^TITY. 

3.  Ten  Supines  have  the  first  syllable  short : 

cUum^  datum^  Itum,  litum,  quitum,  rictum,  rutum^  satum,  sttum,  star 
turn? 

652.  In  trisyllabic  Reduplicated  Perfects  the  first  two 
syllables  are  short : 

cado,  cecidi ;  cano,  cecini ;  disco,  didici. 

1.  Caedo  has  cSeldi  in  distinction  from  cicldi  from  cddo. 

2.  The  second  syllable  may  be  made  long  by  position :  c&cv/rri,  mbmordi. 

II,  In  Derivatives. 

653.  Rule  XY. — Derivatives  retain  the  quantity 
of  their  primitives : 

bonus,  bomtas;  timeo,  timer;  animus,  animosus;  civis,  civicus;  cura, 
euro. 

1.  Frequentatives  in  ito,  have  i  short :  clarriUo.     See  332.  I. 

2.  In  a  few  Derivatives  the  short  vowel  of  the  primitive  is  lengthened : 


h6mo, 

humanus, 

lateo, 

laterna, 

16|0, 
macer, 

lex,  Iggis, 

macfero, 

m6reo, 

mobilis, 

persono, 

persona, 

In  a  few  Derivatives  the  long  \/ 

Seer, 

acerbus, 

dice, 

dicax, 

dace, 

dux,  diicis, 

fide, 

fides, 

luceo, 

lucerna, 

moles, 

mSlestus, 

r&go, 

r6x,  regis,  rggula. 

sScus, 

secius, 

s§deo, 

sedes,  s6diilus, 

s6ro, 

s6men, 

suspicor, 

suspicio, 

t6go. 

tegiila. 

welofthe 

primitive  is  shortened 

notura, 

nota. 

odi, 

odium, 

sopio, 

sSpor, 
vSdum, 

vado, 

vox,  vocis 

,        v6co. 

This  change  of  quantity  in  some  instances  is  the  result  of  contraction :  m6viblU&, 
mdlhUis,  rrwhUis,  and  in  others  it  serves  to  distinguish  words  of  the  same  orthogra- 
phy :  as  the  verbs  Ugia^  liges,  rSgis,  rSges,  sSdes,  from  the  nouns  legis,  leges,  regis, 
reges,  sedes,  or  the  verbs  dUcis,  duces,  fides,  from  the  nouns  diccis,  dUces,  fides. 


Ill  In  Compounds. 

654:.  Rule  XYI. — Compounds  generally  ?^etain  the 
quantity  of  their  elements : 

antS-fero,  de-fero,  de-duco,  in-aequalis,  pro-duco. 

1.  The  change  of  a  vowel  or  diphthong  does  not  affect  the  quantity: 
de-ligo  (lego),  oc-cido  {cado),  oc-cido  (caedo). 

*  From  sisto,  but  stdtiem  from  sto. 


EULES    OF   QUANTITY.  299 

2.  Inseparable  Prepositions. — Dl,  se,  and  ve  are  long,  rS  short : 
ne  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short  : 

didaco,  BCdaco,  v5cors,  rfeduco,  nedum,  nfifas: 

1)  Di  .'8  short  in  dlrimo,  dlsertua. 

2)  Nc  is  long  in  nedum,  nemo,  nequam,  niqudqttam,  niquridquam,  niqulUa^ 
and  nece.    In  other  words  it  is  short. 

8)  Re  is  sometimes  lengthened  in  a  few  words:  rillffio,  rblquiae^ ripirit^ ripH* 
lU,  rkulU,  etc 

3.  Change  of  Quantity. — In  a  few  words  the  quantity  of  the  second 
element  is  changed.     Thus 

Dice  gives  -dicus  ;  juro,  -fero  ;  ndtus, -niius ;  nubo,  nuba :  m&15-d!cus, 
de-j6ro,  cog-uitus,  prO-uuba. 

4.  Pro. — Pro  is  short  in  the  following  words : 

Piikella,  prdcul,  prdfdnits,  prqfdri,  profecto,  prdfestua,  pro/iciscor,  prd- 
fUeor,  prqfugio,  profugus,  prdfundus,  pronepos,  prdneptis,  protervus,  and 
most  Greek  words,  as  prdpheta,  generally  in  prd/undo,  propdgo,  prCpino, 
rurely  in  prScuro,  propello. 

6.  Stem. — When  the  first  element  is  the  stem  of  a  word  (338.  III.),  it 
is  often  followed  by  a  short  connecting  vowel : 

cill-6-f icio,  lib  6  fScio,  bell-i-gfiro,  aed-i-fico,  art-I  fex,  ampl-l-fico,  15c- 
iiples. 

Before /ic/o  in  a  few  compounds  e  is  Bomotiraes  lengthened :  nquffdcio,  pdt^d* 
do,  putrf/dcio,  t^pffacio.    The  first  e  in  tldellcet  is  long. 

6.  I  LONG.—/  is  long,— (1)  in  the  first  part  of  compounds  of  dies:  mSrl- 
dies,  pridie,  postrldie,  quStldie,  triduum,  and  (2)  in  the  contracted  forms, 
bigcu,  trigae,  quadrigae,  Uicei,  scilicet,  tlUcen  for  tibiicen. 

Bat  i  Is  short  in  lAduum  and  qtidtrlduuin, 

7.  0  LONG. — 0  is  long  in  contrd-,  intrd-,  retrd-,  and  quandO-  in  composi- 
tion ;  as :  contrdversia,  inttdduco,  retrdverto,  quanddque,  but  quandSquidem. 

8.  Special  Words. — Iljdie,  quusi,  qicoque,  and  stquidem,  have  the  first 
fcvUablo  short. 


U 


CHAPTEE  II. 
VEESIFICATION. 


SECTION  I. 

GEITERAL    VIEW    OF    THE   SUBJECT 

655.  Latin  Versification  is  based  upon  Quantity  and 
Accent.  Syllables  are  combined  into  certain  metrical  groups 
called  Feet,  and  feet,  singly  or  in  pairs,  are  combined  into 
Verses. 

L  Metkical  Feet. 

656.  Feet  are  either  simple  or  compound.  For  con- 
venience of  reference  we  add  the  following  list : 


I.  Simple  Feet, 

Dissyllabic   Feet. 

Spondee, 

two  long  iyllalleZy                     

LSg53. 

Trochee,» 

a  long  and  a  shorty                    —  « 

Lggls. 

Iambus, 

a  short  and  a  long^                    **  — 

Parens. 

Pyrrhic, 

two  shorty                                  V  w 
Trisyllabic  Feet. 

PStSr. 

Dactyl, 

a  long  and  two  short,              —  w  w 

cSrminS. 

Anapaest, 

ttco  short  and  a  long,              w  w  — 

bSnitSs. 

Tribrach, 

tJtree  shoH,                               **  ^  ^ 

d6miniis. 

Molossus, 

three  long,                               « 

libfirtas. 

Amphibrach, 

a  short,  a  long,  and  a  short,    «  —  u 

Smiciis. 

Amphimacer,' 

a  long,  a  short,  and  a  long,    —  w  — 

militSs. 

Bacchius, 

a  short  and  two  long,              w»  —  — 

dSlorgs. 

Antibacchius, 

two  long  and  a  short,              — »  « 

pSstSria. 

II.  Compound  Feet. 

These  are  only  compounds  of  the  dissyllabic  feet,  and 
all  have  four  syllables. 


>  Sometimes  called  Chore*. 


5  Also  ctHod  Or-atlo, 


METRICAL   FEET. 


301 


Dispondee,  doubU  spondee, 

Ditrochee,  double  troclue, 

Diiambus,  double  iambus, 

Proceleusmatic,  double  pyrrhic, 

Greater  Ionic,  spondee  and pyrrhic, 

Lesser  Ionic,  pyrrhic  and  spondee, 

Choriambus,  trochee  (choree),  and  iambus, 

Antispast,  iambus  and  trochee. 

First  Epitrite,  iambus  and  spondee, 

Second  Epitrite,  trochee  and  spondee, 

Tliird  Epitrite,  spondee  and  iambus, 

Fourth  Epitrite,  spondee  and  trochee. 

First  Paeon,  trochee  and  pyrrhic, 

Second  Paeon,  iambus  and  pyrrhic, 

Third  Paeon,  pyrrhic  and  trochee, 

Fourth  Paeon,  pyrrhic  and  iambus. 


pia6c6pt5r68. 

civItStis. 

&motinitSs. 

mfimdriS, 

sfintentlS. 

SddlCscCns. 

Imp&tlens. 

v6r6cflndu8. 

&m5v6rant, 

condltorfis. 

aftctOritSs. 

CrnStn6ut&. 

histSria. 

&tnSbiIIs. 

piiSrllis. 

c616rrtSs. 


1.  Common  Feet. — The  feet  of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  the  best  Latin 
poets  are, 

1)  The  Dactyl  and  Spondee,  used  in  the  Heroic  Hexameter. 

2)  Less  frequent  the  Iambus,  Trochee^  Tribrach,  Anapaest,  and  Cltori- 
ambus. 

2.  Groups. — A  Dipody  is  a  group  of  two  feet ;  a  Tripody,  of  three ;  a 
Tetrapody,  of  four,  etc.  A  Triemimeris  is  a  group  of  three  half  feet,  i.  e.,  a 
foot  and  a  half;  PenihemimefHs,  of  two  and  a  half;  Jlephthemimerie,  of  three 
and  a  half,  etc. 

657.  Metrical  Equivalents. — A  long  syllable  may 
often  be  resolved  into  two  short  ones,  as  equivalent  to  it  in 
quantity,  or  two  short  ones  may  be  contracted  into  a  long 
one.  The  forms  thus  produced  are  metrical  equivalents 
of  the  original  forms.     Thus, 

The  Dactyl  becomes  a  Spondee  by  contracting  the  two  short  syllables  Into  one 
long  syllable;  the  Spondee  becomes  a  Dactyl  by  resolving  the  second  syllabic,  or  an 
Anapaest  by  resolving  the  first  Accordingly  the  Dactyl,  the  Spondee,  and  the  Ana- 
paest are  metrical  equivalents.  In  like  manner  the  Iambus,  the  Trochee,  and  the 
Tribrach  are  metrical  equivalents. 

658.  Metrical  Substitutes. — ^In  certain  kinds  of  verse, 
feet  are  sometimes  substituted  for  those  which  are  not  their 
metrical  equivalents.     Thus, 

The  Spondee  Is  often  substituted  for  the  Iambus  or  the  Trochee,  though  not 
equivalent  to  either.    See  679,  682. 

659.  Ictus  or  Rhythmic  Accent. — As  in  the  pronun. 
ciation  of  a  word  one  or  more  syllables  receive  a  special 
stress  of  voice  called  accent,  so  in  the  pronunciation  d  a 
metrical  foot  one  or  more  syllables  receive  a  special  stress 
of  voice  called  Rhythmic  Accent  or  Ictus. 


302  FEET.      VfiKSES. 

1.  Simple  Feet.— Feet  consisting  of  both  long  and  short  syllables  have 
the  ictus  uniformly  on  the  long  syllables,  unless  used  for  other  feet.    Thus, 

The  Dactyl  and  the  Trochee  have  the  ictus  on  the  first  syllable  ;  the  Anapaest 
and  the  Iambus  on  the  last. 

2.  Equivalents  and  Substitutes. — These  take  the  ictus  of  the  feet  for 
which  they  are  used.    Thus, 

The  Spondee,  when  used  for  the  Dactyl,  takes  the  Ictus  of  the  Dactyl,  1.  e.,  on 
the  first  syllable;  but  when  used  for  the  Anapaest,  it  takes  the  ictus  of  the  Anapaest, 
I.  e.,  on  the  last  syllable. 

1)  Feet  consisting  entirely  of  long  or  entirely  of  short  syllables  are  generally 
equivalents  or  substitutes,  and  are  accented  accordingly. 

2)  When  two  short  syllables  of  an  equivalent  take  the  place  of  an  accented  long 
syllable  of  the  original  foot,  the  ictus  rests  chiefly  on  the  first  of  these  two.  Thus  the 
Dactyl  used  for  the  Anapaest  takes  the  ictus  on  the  first  short  syllable. 

3.  Compound  Feet.— These  take  the  ictus  of  the  feet  of  which  they  are 
composed.    Thus, 

The  CJioriambus  (trochee  and  iambus)  takes  the  ictus  of  the  trochee  on  the  first 
S}  liable  and  that  of  the  iambus  on  the  last. 

But  Ionic  feet  are  generally  read  with  the  ictus  on  the  first  long  syllable. 

660.  Arsis  and  Thesis. — The  accented  part  of  each 
foot  is  called  the  Arsis  {raising)  ;  and  the  unaccented  part, 
Thesis  {lowering), 

II.  Verses. 

661.  A  verse  is  a  line  of  poetry,  and  is  either  simple  or 
compound. 

I.  A  Simple  verse  has  one  characteristic  or  fundamental 
foot,  which  determines  the  ictus  for  the  whole  verse.   Thus, 

Every  Dactylic  Verse  has  the  ictus  on  the  first  syllable,  because  the  Dac- 
tyl, its  characteristic  foot,  has  it  on  that  syllable. 

II.  A  Compound  verse  has  a  characteristic  foot  for  each 
member.    See  692. 

662.  Caesural  Pause. — Most  verses  are  divided  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts  by  a  pause  or  rest  called  the  caesu- 
ra* or  caesural  pause.    See  673,  674. 

663.  Metrical  N"ames  op  Verses.— The  metrical 
name  of  a  verse  designates, 

I.  The  Characteristic  foot.    Thus, 

1  Caesura  (from  caedo^  to  cut)  means  a  cutting;  it  cuts  or  div^dw  the  verse  into 
parts. 


NAMES   OF  VERSES.  ^05 

Dactylic,  Trochaic,  and  Iambic  verses  have  respectively  the  Dactyl,  the 
Trochee,  and  the  Iambus  as  the  characteristic  foot. 

II.  The  Number  of  Feet  or  Measures.'     Thus, 

1.  Dactylic  Hexameter  is  Dactylic  verse  of  six  measures. 

2.  A  verse  consisting  of  one  measure  is  Monometer  ;  of  two,  Dinifierf 
of  three,  Trimeter;  of  four,  Tetrameter;  o{&\e,  Fentameter  ;  ofsix,  liexam' 
eter. 

III.  The  Completeness  or  Incompleteness  of  the  meas- 
ures.   Thus, 

1.  A  verse  is  termed  Acataleciic,  when  its  last  measure  is  complete ; 
Oatalectie,  when  it  is  incomplete. 

1)  A  Oatalectie  verse  Is  said  to  be  catalectic  in  6ylW>am,  in  disylldbum,  or 
in  trieylldbum,  according  as  the  incomplete  foot  has  one,  two,  or  three  syllables. 

2)  A  Brachycatalectie  verso  wants  the  closing  foot  of  the  last  Dipody. 
8)  An  Acephalous  verse  wants  the  first  syllable  of  the  first  foot. 

4)  A  Iltjpercatalectic  verse,  also  called  Uypermeter^  has  an  excess  of  j*yllobles. 

2.  The  full  metrical  name  combines  the  three  particulars  enumerated 
under  I.  II.  and  III.,  as  Dactylic  Hexameter  Acatalectic,  Dactylic  Trimeter 
CataUdic,  etc. 

1)  But  for  the  sake  of  brevity  the  term  Acatalectic  is  often  omitted  when  It  can 
be  done  without  ambiguity. 

2)  Verses  are  sometimes  known  by  names  which  merely  designate  the  number 
of  feet  or  measures.  Thus  Hexameter  (six  measures)  sometimes  designates  the  Dac- 
tylic Hexameter  Acatalectic,  and  iSenariua  (six  feet),  the  /amebic  Trimeter  Acata» 
lectic. 

664.  Spectal  Names  op  Verses. — Many  verses  are 
often  designated  by  names  derived  from  celebrated  poeis. 
Thus, 

Alcaic  from  Alcaeus,  Archilochian  from  Archilochus,  Sapphic  from 
Sappho,  Glyconic,  from  Glycou,  etc. 

Verses  sometimes  receive  a  name  from  the  kind  of  subjects  to  which  they  wer« 
applied:  as  Heroic,  applied  to  heroic  subjects ;  Paroemiac,  to  proverbs,  etc 

QQ5.  Final  Syllable. — ^The  final  syllable  of  a  verse 
may  generally  be  either  long  or  short. 

666.  Stanza. — A  stanza  is  a  combination  of  two  or 
more  verses  of  different  metres  into  one  metrical  whole. 
See  699,  YOO. 

A  stanza  of  two  lines  is  called  a  Distich  ;  of  three,  a  Tristich  ;  of  four,  a 
Xetrastich. 

*  A  measure  is  a  sinple  foot,  except  In  Anapaestic,  Trochaic,  and  Iambic  verse*, ' 
Wh*re  It  is  a  Dipody  or  P*ir  of  feet 


304  METRE.      FIGURES   OF  PROSODY. 

667.  Metre. — Metre  signifies  measure,  and  is  used  to 
designate, 

1.  A  Foot  or  Dipody,  as  the  measure,  or  Dietrical  ele- 
ment of  a  verse. 

2.  A  Verse  or  Stanza,  as  the  measure  of  a  poem. 

668.  Scanning. — Scanning  consists  in  separating  a  poem, 
or  verse,  into  the  feet  of  which  it  is  composed. 


III.  Figures  of  Prosody. 

669.  The  ancient  poets  sometimes  allowed  themselves, 
in  the  use  of  letters  and  syllables,  certain  liberties  generally 
termed  Figures  of  Prosody.    These  are, 

I.  Synaloepha. — This  is  the  elision  of  a  final  vowel  or 
diphthong,  or  of  a  final  m  with  the  preceding  vowel,  before 
a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel : 

Monstr'  horrend'  inform'  ingens,  for  Monstrum  horrendum  informe 
ingens.  Virg. 

1.  No  account  is  taken  of  h,  as  it  is  only  a  breathing  (2.  2).  Hence  hor- 
rendum is  treated  as  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel. 

2.  Interjections,  o,  heu,  ah,  proh,  etc.,  are  not  elided,  but  in  other  words 
the  elision  generally  takes  place  in  the  best  poets.    But  see  Virg.  Aen.  Ill,  74. 

3.  Final  e  iu  the  interrogative  ne  is  sometimes  elided  before  a  consonant: 
Pyrrhin'  connubia  servas  ?  for  Pyrrhine  connubia  servas  ?   Firff. 

4.  The  elision  of  5  occurs  in  the  early  poets : 

Ex  omnibu'  rebus.yoj*  Ex  omnibus  rSbus.  Zucr. 

5.  Synaloepha  may  occur  at  the  end  of  a  line  when  the  next  line  be 
gins  with  a  vowel.     It  is  then  called  Synapheia. 

II.  Synaeresis. — This  is  the  contraction  of  two  sylla- 
bles into  one : 

aurca,  deinde,  deinceps,  ildem,  fisdem. 

1.  Synaeresis  is  of  frequent  application.     It  may  unite 

1)  Two  successive  vowels,  as  in  the  examples  above. 

2)  A  vowel  and  a  diphthong:  eaedem. 

3)  Two  vowels  separated  by  A,  as  only  a  breathing :  prohlbeat,  pronounced  proi' 
heat. 

2.  In  the  different  parts  cy£  desum,  ee  is  generally  pronounced  as  one  ajl' 
lah\e:dee88e,dmt,  deerat,  deSrit,  etc. :  so  ei  in  the  verb  anteeo  :  anieire,  antei- 
rem,  anieis,  anteit. 

8.  /  and  u  before  vowels  are  sometimes  used  as  consonants  with  the 
sound  of  y  and  w :  Thus,  abute  and  arteie,  become  dbyete  and  dryete  ;  ffeniia 
and  tenues  become  tflnwa  and  Unwls. 


FIGUBES   OF   PROSODY.      VARIETIES   OF   VERSE.         305 

III.  Diaeresis. — ^This  is  the  resolution  of  one  syllable 
into  two : 

aurai' /or  aurae,  Orphfius  for  Orpheus,  soluendus, /or  solvendus,  silua 
for  silva. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  Latin  poets  seldom,  if  ever,  actually  divide  any  syllable 
into  two,  and  the  examples  generally  explained  by  dia^re^is  are  only  ancient  forma, 
occasionally  used  by  them  for  eflFect  or  convenience. 

IV.  Systole. — This  is  the  shortening  of  a  long  syllable: 
tulfirunt /or  tiilCrunt,  stct^runt /or  st^tCrunt  (235),  vidd'n /or  videsne. 
This  Is  a  rare  poetical  license,  occurring  most  frequently  in  the  final  vowels  and 

diphthongs,  which  would  otherwise  be  elided.      Bee  669.  I.  2. 

V.  Diastole. — ^This  is  the  Icnffthenino:  of  a  short  syl- 
lable:  ^  °  ^ 

Priimldes/or  PrlSmldes. 

1.  This  Is  a  poetical  license,  used  chiefly  In  proper  names  and  in  final  syllables  in 
the  arsis  of  the  foot  (660).  In  the  latter  case  the  syllable  is  said  to  be  lengthened  by 
the  ictui. 

SECTION  n. 

VABJETJES  OF   VERSE, 

I.  Dactylic  Verse. 

670.  All  Dactylic  Verses  are  measured  by  single  feet 
(663.  II.),  and  consist  of  Dactyls  and  their  metrical  equiv- 
alents, Spondees.  The  ictus  is  on  the  first  syllable  of  every 
foot. 

L  Dactylic  Hexameter, 

671.  The  Dactylic  Hexameter  consists  of  six  feet.  The 
first  four  are  either'Dactyls  or  Spondees,  the  fifth  a  Dactyl, 
and  the  sixth  a  Spondee  (665). 

The  scale  is,^ 


Qu2driip6- 1  dSntfi  pii- 1  trem  s6nl-  |  tQ  quStlt  I  flngtilS  |  cSmpum.  Virg. 
Arm&  vl-  I  rfimqufi  cfi-  |  n5  Tro-  ]  j5e  qui  |  primus  Sb  |  Oris.    Virg. 
InfSn-  I  dQm  rG-  |  ginS  ju-  |  bfis  r6u6-  |  var6  do-  [  lorem.   Virg. 
Illi«  In-  I  tCr  sfi-  |  sO  m5<5-  ]  nS  tI  ]  brSchia  |  tSllttnt.   Virg. 


'  In  this  scale  the  sign  '  marks  the  ictu%  (659). 
«  The  final  i  of  illi  Is  elided  by  Synaloepha  (669). 


306  DACTYLIC   HEXAMETER. 

672.  Varieties. — The  scale  of  dactylic  hexameters  ad- 
mits sixteen  varieties,  produced  by  varying  the  relative 
number  and  arrangement  of  dactyls  and  spondees. 

1.  Illustration. — Thus  a  verse  may  contain, 

1)  Five  dactyls  and  one  spondee,  as  in  the  first  example  above. 

2)  Four  dactyls  and  two  spondees.  These  again  admit  four  diflferent  aiV 
rangements. 

3)  Three  dactyls  and  three  spondees,  as  in  the  second  and  third  examples 
above.    But  these  again  admit  six  different  arrangements. 

4)  Two  dactyls  and  four  spondees.  These  admit  four  different  arrange- 
ments. 

5)  One  dactyl  and  five  spondees,  as  in  the  fourth.example. 

2.  Effect  op  Dactyls. — Dactyls  produce  a  rapid  movement  and  are 
adapted  to  lively  subjects.  Spondees  produce  a  slow  movement  and  are 
adapted  to  grave  subjects.  But  generally  the  best  effect  is  produced  in  suc- 
cessive Hues  by  variety  in  the  number  and  arrangement  of  dactyls  and  spon- 
dees.   

3.  Spoxdaic  Lixb.^ — The  Hexameter  sometimes  takes  a  spondee  in  the 
fifth  place.  It  is  then  called  Spondaic,  and  generally  has  a  dactyl  as  its- 
fourth  foot : 

CarS  d6-  [  Hm  s6b5-  |  I6s  mag-  ]  num  J6v!s  ]  lucre-  1  mCntum.   Virff. 

673.  Caesukal  Pause. — The  favorite  caesural  pause 
of  the  Hexameter  is  after  the  arsis,  or  in  the  thesis,  of  the 
third  foot : 

Arms-  I  tl  ten-  ]  dunt;  ||  it  [  clSmSr  6t  I  agmlnS  |  fSctS.   Virg. 
infSn-  I  dum,  r6-  |  ginS,  i|  jvi-  ]  b6s  r6n3-  |  var&  d6-  |  lorem.   Virg. 

In  the  first  line  the  caesural  pause,  marked  |I ,  is  after  tendunt,  after  the  arsis  oi 
the  third  foot;  and  in  the  second  line  after  reglna,  in  the  thesis  (ndjii)  of  the  third 
foot. 

1.  Rare  Caesural  Pause, — The  caesural  pause  is  sometimes  in  the 
fourth  foot,  and  then  an  additional  pause  is  often  introduced  in  the  second 
foot.    Sometimes  indeed  this  last  becomes  the  principal  pause : 

CredidS-  ]  rim ;  ||  v6r  [  illiid  6-  |  rSt,  ll  v5r  j  mSgniis  S-  |  g6bat.   Virg.    ■ 

2.  Bucolic  Caesura. — A  pause  between  the  fourth  and  fifth  feet  is  gen- 
erally called  the  bucolic  caesura,  because  often  used  in  pastoral  poetry : 

Inggn-  I  tem  coe-  [  lo  s6ni-  ]  tflm  d6dit ;  ||  indfe  s6-  |  cutus.   Virg. 

3.  Faulty  Caesura. — A  caesural  pause  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot  is 
regarded  as  a  blemish  in  the  verse  : 

PulvSrii-  j  Igntiis  6-  1  quis  fiirit;  ||  5mn6s  ]  SrmS  re-  |  quirunt.   Virg. 

674.  Caesura  and  Caesural  Pause. — ^The  ending  of 
a  word  within  a  foot  always  produces  a  caesura.  A  line 
may  therefore  have  several  caesuras,  but  generally  only 
one  of  these  (sometimes  two)  is  marked  by  the  caesurd 
pause : 


DACTYLIC   VKESK.  807 

ArmS  vl-  |  rumque  c&-  1  n5,  ||  Tr5-  1  jaS  qui  |  primiis  &h  \  Cris.   Virff. 

1.  Here  there  is  a  caesura  in  every  foot  except  the  last,  but  only  one 
of  these,  that  after  cano,  has  the  caesural  pause. 

2.  In  determining  which  caesura  is  to  be  marked  by  the  pause  the  reader 
must  be  guided  by  the  sense,  introducing  the  pause  where  there  is  a  pause 
of  sense,  or  where  at  least  it  will  not  interfere  with  the  sense. 

3.  The  caesura,  with  or  without  the  pause,  is  an  important  feature  ia 
every  hexameter.    A  line  without  it  is  prosaic  in  the  extreme : 

R5mae  [  mofinlS  |  tfirriilt  1  impigSr  |  HannibSl  |  Srmis.  £nn. 

675.  Last  Word  of  the  Hexameter. — ^The  last  word 
of  the  Hexameter  should  be  either  a  dissyllable  or  a  trisyl- 
lable.   See  examples  above. 

1.  Two  monosyllables  are  not  particularly  object'onable,  and  sometimeit 
even  produce  a  happy  efifect : 

Praeclpl-  |  tant  cQ-  |  rae,  |i  tur-  1  bStSquS  |  fun6r6  |  mens  est.   Virg. 

Est  is  Indeed  often  used  even  when  not  preceded  by  another  monosyllable. 

2.  A  single  monosyllable,  except  est,  is  not  often  used  at  the  end  of  tha 
line,  except  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis  or  humor: 

Parturl-  1  tint  m5n-  |  tgs,  |1  nas-  j  cfitur  ]  ridlcii-  |  lus  mus.  ITor. 

II.  Dactylic  Pentameter, 

676.  The  Dactylic  Pentameter  consists  of  two  parts 
separated  by  the  caesural  pause.  Each  part  consists  of  two 
Dactyls  and  the  arsis  of  a  third.  The  Spondee  may  take 
the  place  of  the  Dactyl  in  the  first  part,  but  not  in  the 
second : 


Admoni-  I  til  coe-  |  pi  ||  fSrtior  |  6ss6  tii-  [  6.  Omd, 

1.  Pextauetbe. — The  name  Pentameter  is  founded  on  the  ancient  divi- 
sion of  the  line  into  five  feet ;  the  first  and  second  being  dactyls  or  spondees ; 
the  third,  a  spondee ;  the  fourth  and  fifth,  anapaests. 

2.  Elegiac  Distich.— The  Dactylic  Pentameter  is  seldom,  if  ever,  used, 
except  in  the  Elegiac  Distich,  which  consists  of  the  Hexameter  followed  by 
the  Pentameter : 

SSmlsfi- 1  palt&  vl-  I  rflm  ||  cflr-  |  vis  f  grl-  |  ttntiir  &-  |  rStris 
OssA,  rti-  I  InS-  |  sSs  ||  (Jcciillt  |  hfirbS  d6-  I  mfls.  Ov. 

Ill  Other  Dactylic  Verses. 

677.  The  other  varieties  of  dactylic  verse  are  less  im- 
portant, but  the  following  deserve  mention  : 


308         DATYLIC,   ANAPAESTIC,    AND   TEOCHAIC   VEESES. 

I.  Dactylic  Teteameter. — This  consists  of  the  last 
four  feet  of  the  Hexameter : 

Ibimus  I  0  soci-  j  1,  comi-  |  tfisque.  Hor. 

In  compound  yerses,  as  the  Greater  Archilochlan,  the  tetrameter  in  composition 
With  other  metres,  has  a  dactyl  in  the  fourth  place.    See  691. 1. 

II.  Dactylic  Teimeter  Catalectic. — ^This  is  the  Lesser 
Archilochian,  and  is  identical  with  the  second  half  of  the 
pactyhc  Pentameter : 

Arbori-  j  busquS  co-  |  mae.  Hor. 

III.  Dactylic  Dimeter. — ^This  is  the  Adonic,  and  con- 
sists of  a  Dactyl  and  Spondee : 

Montis  i-  1  mago.  Hor. 

II.  Anapaestic  Yeese. 

678.  Anapaestic  verses  consist  of  Anapaestic  dipodies. 

An  Anapaestic  dipody  consists  of  two  Anapaests,  but 
admits  Spondees  or  Dactyls  as  equivalents. 

I.  Anapaestic  Dimeter  consists  of  two  dipodies: 
Yenient  •  annis  |I  saeciila  •  seris.'  Sen. 

This  is  sometimes  catalectic  (663,  III.  1),  and  has  only  a  long  syllable  in  place  of 
the  last  foot.    It  is  then  called  Paroemiae. 

II.  AxAPAESTic  MoNOMETER  consists  of  on8  dipody: 
Data  rgs  •  patriae.  Atison. 

1.  In  Anapaestic  verse  Dactyls  are  nsed  sparingly,  and  are  generally  followed  by 
Spondees.    Each  dipody  generally  ends  with  a  word. 

2.  The  last  syllable  is  not  common,  as  in  most  kinds  of  verse  (665),  but  eubject 
to  the  ordinary  rules  of  quantity. 

8.  Anapaestic  verse  does  not  occur  in  the  best  Latin  Poets. 

III.  Teochaic  Yeese. 

679.  Trochaic  verses  consist  of  Trochaic  dipodies. 

A  Trochaic  dipody  consists  of  two  Trochees,  or  of  a 
Trochee  and  a  Spondee ;  but  it  admits  the  Tribrach  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  Trochee,  and  the  Anapaest,  of  the  Spon- 
dee.    The  first  foot  has  a  heavier  ictus  than  the  second  : 

*  In  verses  measured  by  dipodies,  a  dotted  line  is  placed  between  the  feet,  a  sin* 
!?le  line  between  the  dipodies,  a-;d  i  doi\l»le  lino  in  the  place  of  the  caesural  pausw?. 


rEOCHAIO   VEESE. 


309 


I,  Trochaic  Tetrameter  Catalectic, 

680.  This  consists  of  four  Trochaic  Dipodies  with  the 
last  foot  incomplete.  The  caesural  pause  is  at  the  end  of 
the  fourth  foot,  and  the  incomplete  dipody  admits  no  equiv- 
alents : 


Nulla  I  v5x  ha-  I  inSuS  |  constat  ||  Sbsqufi  j  sCptfim  ]  llttS-  j  ris, 
Rit6  j  v5c5-  I  I6s  v3-  j  cSvIt  ||  quSa  mS-  j  gistrS  |  Grafid-  j  a.  Ter.  Mau. 

1.  In  Proper  Names^  a  dactyl  may  be  introduced  in  any  foot  except  the  foarth 
«nd  seventh. 

2.  The  Proceleu^matic  f<»r  the  Spondee  sometimes  occurs. 

3.  In  Comedy  the  Spondee  and  its  equivalents  occur  in  the  odd  feet,  as  well  a/i 
in  the  even,  except  in  the  lost  dipody. 

4.  The  Trochaic  Tetrameier  also  occurs  in  the  earlier  poets  in  its  complete 
fonfl,  i.  e.,  with  eight  full  feet : 

Ips5  :  summla  |  saxis  •  flxis  ||  ispS-  •  ru  5- 1  viscc- •   ratua.    Enti. 

II,  Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalectic, 

681.  This  consists  of  two  Trochaic  Dipodies  with  the 
last  foot  incomplete.  In  Horace  it  admits  no  equivalents 
and  has  the  following  scale, 


AtiU  •  divi-  j  tSm  m5-  *.  net.  Hor. 

1.  This  is  sometimes  called  Iambic  Dimeter  Acephaloue,  I.  o.,  an  Iambic  Dime* 
ter  with  the  first  syllable  wanting. 

2.  A  Troc7iaic  Tripody,— three  Trochees— technically  called  a  Trochaic  Dime- 
ter  BrcfChycatalictic,  or  an  IthypJialican,  occurs  in  the  Greater  Archilochlan.  Sea 
*91.  I. 

3.  For  Sapphic  Verse,  see  691.  IV. 

4.  For  Phalaecian^  sec  691.  V. 


W,  Iambic  Veese. 
682.  Iambic  verses  consist  of  Iambic  dipodies. 
An  Iambic  dipody  consists  of  two  Iambi,  or  of  a  Spon- 


dee and  an  Iambus;  but  it  admits  the  Tribrach  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  Iambus,  and  sometimes  the  Dactyl  or  tho 


310 


IAMBIC   VERSE. 


Anapaest,  of  the  Spondee.    The  first  foot  has  a  heavier 
ictus  than  the  second. 

In  its  full  form  it  has  the  followinoj  scale : 


I.  Iambic  Trimeter. 

683.  This  verse,  also  called  Senarius,  consists  of  three 
Iambic  Dipodies. 

I.  The  first  dipody  has  the  full  form. 
II.  The  second  admits  no  Anapaest. 

III.  The  third  admits  no  Anapaest  or  Dactyl,  and  in  its  second 
foot,  no  equivalent  whatever. 

IV.  The  Caesura!  Pause  is  usually  in  the  third  foot,  but  may 
be  in  the  fourth. 

The  scale  is, 


V   \J   —      I  I  I 


Quitd  ob-  i  s6r5-  I  tis  [|  au-  |  ribus  |  fuudls  \  prices  ?  JIbr. 
N6ptu-  I  nfis  al-  ]  t5  ||  tun-  [  dit  hi-  ]  berntis  j  sstlo.  JIo?'. 
Has  in-  :  tSr  6pu-  1  las  1|  ut  :  jiivat  |  pastas  j  oves.  Jlor. 

1.  Proper  Names.— In  proper  names  an  Anapaest  is  admissible  in  afly 
foot,  except  the  last,  but  must  be  in  a  single  word. 

2.  Horace. — In  Horace  the  only  feet  freely  admitted  are  the  Iambus  and 
the  Spondee ;  their  equivalents,  the  Tribrach,  the  Dactyl  and  Anapaest,  are 
used  rery  sparingly.  The  Tribrach  never  occurs  in  the  fifth  foot  and  only 
once  in  the  first.    The  Anapaest  occurs  only  twice  in  all. 

S.  Comedy.— In  Comedy  great  liberty  is  taken,  and  the  Spondee  and  its 
equivalents  are  freely  admitted  in  any  foot  except  the  last. 

4.  Choliambus.— This  is  a  variety  of  Iambic  Trimeter  with  a  Spondee  in 
the  sixth  foot  and  an  Iambus  in  the  fifth  : 

Mlsgr  i  CStul-  I  16  de-  j  sJnas  |  !nep-  j  tire.  Catul. 

ChoUanibus  means  lame  or  limping  lamhus,  and  is  so  called  from  its  limpiny 
movement.  It  is  sometimes  called  Season  for  the  same  reason,  and  sometimes  ITip- 
ponaciean,  from  Hipponax,  ita  reputed  inventor. 

684.  Iambic  Trimeter  Catalectic. — ^This  is  the  Iam- 
bic Trimeter  with  the  last  foot  incomplete.  But  in  Horace- 
the  only  feet  admissible  besides  the  Iambus  are  the  Tri- 


IAMBIC    VERSE. 


311 


br&ch  m  the  second  foot  and  the  Spondee  in  the  first  and 
third : 


V6c5«  :  tus  at-  I  qu6  nSn  j  v6cS-  ]  tiis  au-  |  dit.  Ilor. 

II.  lamhic  Dimeter. 

685.  This  verse  consists  of  two  Iambic  Dipodies  with* 
their  usual  equivalents.  But  in  Horace  the  only  feet  ad- 
missible besides  the  Iambus  are  the  Tribrach  in  the  second 
place,  the  Spondee  in  the  first  and  third,  and  the  Dactyl  in 
the  first :  . 


Quferfln-  i  tiir  in  J  silvis  ;  fives.  Ilor. 
ImbrCs  i  nivgs-  [  que  com-  \  pSrat,  Ilor. 
Ast  6g6  I  vicis-  \  sim  ri-  |  s6ro.  Ilor. 

1.  Iambic  Dimeter  IlYrEKMETER  occurs  in  Horace  with  the 
following  scale: 


Plier  1  quis  6x  ]  aulS  |  cSpil-  |  lis.  Ilor. 

This  is  sometimes  called  the  Alcaic  Enncasyllabic  verso  and  forms  the  third  lin« 
In  the  Alcaic  Stanza.    Bee  700.  I. 

2.  Iambic  Dimeter  Catalectic  does  not  occur  in  the  pure  Latin  poets. 
Its  scale  is,  _ 


MSna  i  piier  1  16quS-  !  ci.  Pet.  Arh. 

3.  Iambic  Dimeter  Acephalous.— This  name  is  soir^times  given  to  the 
Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalectic  (631),  which  is  then  treated  as  Iambic  Dimeter 
without  the  first  syllable.    Thus 

Au-  I  12  dl-  1  vitem  i  minet.  Hor. 


III.  Iambic  Tetrameter. 

686.  The  Iambic  Tetrameter  is  little  used  in  Latin  except  in  Come« 
dy.  It  consists  of  four  Iambic  Dipodies  with  their  usual  equivalents.  Th© 
caesural  pause  is  usually  after  the  fourth  foot : 

Qu&ntum  in-  •  telle  x-  |  i  modo  •  senis  ||  85nt€n-  •  tlam  )  4fi  nup-  • 
tils.  Ter. 


812  IONIC   AXD   CHORIAMBIC   VEESES. 

The  Iambic  Tetrameter  Catalectic  belongs  mostly  to  comedy,  but  occurs  also  Jt 
Catullus : 

Qu6t  c5m-  :  mSdas  ]  rgs  at-  •   tull  ?  H  quot  au«  •  tem  4d6-  |  ml  cu-  •  ras.  Ter. 

Y.  Ionic  Verse. 

687.   The  Ionic  a  Minore  consists  entirely  of  Lesser 
Ionics.    It  may  be  either  Tetrameter  or  Dimeter : 


v/    J. 


SXmiil  Guclos  ]  TIbferinis  |  humSros  IS-  ]  vit  in  andis.  Hor. 
N§qu6  s6gni  |  ped6  victus.  Eor. 

1.  Horace  has  this  metre  only  in  one  short  ode  (III.  12).  In  some  edi- 
tions this  ode  consists  entirely  of  Tetrameters ;  but  in  others  it  is  arranged 
in  stanzas  of  three  lines ;  the  first  two,  Tetrameters,  and  the  third,  a  Dimeter. 

2.  In  this  verse  the  last  syllable  is  not  common,  but  subject  to  the  ordi- 
nary rules  of  quantity,  as  in  the  Anapaestic  verse.    See  678.  2. 

3.  The  Ionic  a  Majore,  Sotadmn  Verse,  scarcely  occurs  in  Latin,  except 
in  Comedy.  In  its  pure  state  it  consists  of  three  Greater  Ionic  feet  and  a 
Spondee,  but  in  Martial  the  third  foot  is  a  Ditrochee : 


Has  cum  gfimi-  ]  na  cSmpSdS  [  dfidicat  oil-  1  tgnSs.  Mart. 

VI.  Choeiambic  Verse. 

688.  Choriambic  verses  begin  with  a  Spondee  followed 
by  one,  two,  or  three  Choriambi,  and  end  with  an  Iambus. 

In  Horace  the  Choriambic  verso  uniformly  begins  with  the  Spondee,  but  In  some 
of  the  other  poets  the  Trochee,  the  Anapaest,  or  the  Iambus  occasionally  takes  the 
place  of  the  Spondee. 

689.  A  Choriambic  verse  with  one  Choriambus  is 
called  the  Gly conic ;  or,  if  catalectic,  the  PherecraUan ; 
with  two,  the  Asclepiadean  ;  with  three,  the  Greater  As- 
clepiadean, 

I.  The  Glyconic  has  the  following  scale  : 

D5n6c  1  gratiis  6ram  |  tibL  Hor. 

II.  The  Pherecratean  is  catalectic,  but  otherwise  iden- 
tical with  the  Glyconic.     Its  scale  is, 

i.    _      I      ^    V    V    JL     I     3" 

VIx  da-  1  rSrS  cSri-  ]  nae.  Eor. 


CHOEIAiTBlC   VERSE.  313 

III.  The  AscLKPiADKAN  has  the  following  scale : 

Maece-  1  nSs  StSvIs  ||  6dlt6  r6g-  [  Ibus.  JIbr. 

IV.  The  Greater  AscLEPiADfiAN  has  the  following  scale : 

Seu  pla-  1  r6s  hI6m6s,  ||  seu  trlbiilt  I|  Jflpltfir  Gl-  |  timam.  Ifor. 

This  is  sometimes  called  Choriamhic  Pentameter  and  sometimes  Chariamhi* 
TUrameter. 

Epichoriambic  Verse, 

690.  When  a  verse  begins  with  a  Second  Epitrite  fol- 
lowed by  one  or  two  Choriambi,  and  ends  with  a  Bacchlus, 
it  is  called  Epichoriambic.  Of  this  there  are  two  important 
varieties : 

I.  The  Sapphic  Verse. — This  consists  of  a  Second  Epi- 
trite, a  Choriambus  and  a  Bacchlus ; 

NSmquS  m6  sll-  |  va  ||  liipiia  In  j  SSbina.  Hor. 

1.  But  the  Sapphic  verse  may  also  be  measured  as  a  Trochaic  Dipody 
followed  by  an  Aristophauic  verse,  i.  e  ,  as  composed  of  a  Trochee,  a  Spon- 
dee, a  Dactyl,  and  two  Trochees.    See  691.  IV. 

2.  The  Caesural  Pause  usually  occurs  after  the  fifth  syllable,  as  in  the 
example,  but  sometimes  after  the  sixth. 

3.  Catullus  admits  two  Trochees  in  place  of  the  Epitrite. 

II.  The  Greater  Sapphic  Verse. — ^This  differs  from 
the  Sapphic  proper  only  in  introducing  a  second  Choriam- 
bus before  the  Bacchlus : 

Intfir  aequU-  j  163  gquItSt,  ||  GSllicS  n6c  \  liapStis.  Hor. 
This  is  sometimes  improperly  called  Choriamhic  Tetrameter. 

VII.    LOGAOEDIC  VeP^E. 

691.  Logaoedic  verses  consist  of  Dactyls,  or  their 
equivalents,  followed  by  Trochees. 

I.  Greater  Archilochian. — ^This  consists  of  a  Dactylic 
Tetrameter  (677.  I.)  followed  by  a  Trochaic  Tripody.  The 
first  three  feet  are  either  Dactyls  or  Spondees ;  the  fourth, 
a  Dactyl ;  and  the  last  three,  Trochees  : 


814  LOGAOEDIC   VEESE. 


Vlta€  1  siimmS  br6-  |  visspfim  1  nSs  v6tat,  ||  InchS-  \  SrS  |  iSngam.  Hon 
The  caesural  pause  is  between  the  two  members. 

II.  Alcaic  Vekse. — ^This  consists  of  two  Dactyls  fol- 
lowed by  two  Trochees : 

JLvv|.ivv|^..:i.r 

PurpurS-  1  0  vari-  |  Qs  c6-  j  lore.  Ilor. 

III.  Aristophanic  Vekse. — This  consists  of  a  Dactyl 
followed  by  two  Trochees ; 

Cflr  nSqu6  |  mlli-  |  taris.  JTor. 

This  verse  is  variously  named,  Aristophanis,  Choriamhio  Dimeter,  and  CAo- 
rianibic  Dimeter  Catalectic. 

IV.  Sapphic  Verse. — ^This  prefixes  to  the  Aristophanie 
a  Trochaic  Dipody  consisting  of  a  Trochee  and  a  Spondee 
(690.  I.).    The  scale  is, 

NSmqu6  •  m6  sil-  ]  va  lupus  |  in  Sa-  j  bina.  Ilor, 

Sapphic  verse  may  be  classed  at  pleasure  either  with  the  Logaoedic  verses,  as 
here,  or  with  the  Epichoriamhic  verses,  as  in  article  690. 1. 

V.  Phalaecian  Verse. — ^This  consists  of  a  Spondee,  a 
Dactyl,  and  three  Trochees : 

i.  _  1 .1  .  .  I  i.  „  :  ±  .  I  .L  r 

N5n  est  J  vivSrS,  j|  s6d  vS-  j  lerg  |  vita.  Mai-t. 

This  verse  is  sometimes  called,  from  the  number  of  its  syllables,  ITendecaayUdbic, 
of  eleven  syllables.  It  does  not  occur  in  Horace.  In  Catullus  it  sometimes  has  a 
Trochee,  or  an  Iambus,  in  the  first  place. 

Vin.  Miscellaneous  Verses. 

692.  Greater  Alcaic  Verse. — ^This  consists  of  an 
Iambic  PentJiemimeris  and  a  pure  Dactylic  Dimeter^  i.  e., 
an  Iambic  Dipody,  a  long  syllable  and  two  Dactyls : 


VIdes  1  ut  SI-  I  tS  II  stet  niv6  ]  candidura 
S5rSc-  j  t6  nee  1  jam  ||  sustiuS-  [  2nt  5nus.  Eor. 

1.  The  Caesural  Pause  is  usually  between  the  two  members. 

2.  In  Horace  the  first  foot  is  generally  a  Spondee. 

3.  This  verse  forms  the  first  and  second  lines  of  the  Alcaic  Stanza.    See 
TOO.  I. 


MISCKLLANE0U8   VERSES. 


315 


693.  Dactylico-Iambic  Verse. — This  consists  of  a  pure 
Dactylio  Penthemimeris  (656.  2)  and  an  Iambic  Diineter 
(685): 


Jussiis  Sb-  I  Ir6  d<J-  |  mum,  ||  f  6r6-  j  b&r  In-  |  c6rt5  \  p6de.  Hor. 

1.  This  verse  is  sometimes  called  Eleginmbus. 

2.  This  verse  and  the  following  compounds- the  lanibicO'DactyUc  and  the  Pri- 
aptian — have  the  peculiarity  that  the  two  members  of  each  may  be  treated  as  sepa- 
rate lines,  as  the  last  syllable  of  the  first  member  is  common,  as  at  the  end  of  a  line. 

694.  lAMBicoDAcrYLic  Verse. — This  consists  of  an 
Iambic  Dimeter  and  a  Dactylic  Penthemimeris^  i.  e.,  of  the 
same  parts  as  the  preceding,  but  in  an  inverted  order : 

w—       Isj    —  \    \j    1.       |v—    IIJLwwj—    v\/ 

NIvCs-  i  quS  de-  |  ducOut  ;  J(5v6m:  ||  nunc  m&rS,  |  nQnc  sllfi-  |  ae.  Hor, 

1.  This  verse  is  sometimes  called  lumbelegua. 

2.  For  the  final  syllable  of  the  first  member,  see  698.  2. 

695.  Priapeian  Verse. — ^This  consists  of  a  Glyconic 
and  a  Pherecratean  {G89.  I.  II.)  : 


Qufirciis  |  SrldS  rus-  ]  tka  ||  cCnfCr-  |  matS  sftctl-  |  ri.  Catul. 

1.  In  this  verse,  as  It  appears  in  Catullus,  the  Glyconic  and  the  Pherecratean 
appear  with  such  variations  as  are  allowed  in  that  poet  (688).  Hence  the  Trochee 
quercus  for  the  Spondee,  in  the  example. 

2.  For  the  final  syllable  of  the  first  member,  sec  693.  2. 


SECTION  III. 

TJTE  VERSIFICATION  OF  VIRGIL,  HORACE,   OVID,  AND  JUVENAL. 

696.  Virgil  and  Jitvenal. — Virgil  in  his  Eclogues, 
Georgics,  and  Aeneid,  and  Juvenal  in  his  Satires  use  only 
the  Dactylic  Hexameter.     See  671. 

697.  Ovid. — Ovid  uses  the  Hexameter  in  his  Metamor- 
phoses, but  the  Elegiac  Distich  in  his  Epistles  and  other 
works.     See  676.  2. 

698.  Horace. — Horace  uses  the  Hexameter  in  his  Epis- 
tles and  Satires,  but  in  his  Lyrics,  i.  e.,  in  his  Odea  and 
Epodes,  he  uses  a  great  variety  of  Metre. 


316  METRES   OF   HORACE. 

699.  Lyrics  of  Horace. — Most  of  the  Odes  and 
Epodes  consist  of  Stanzas  of  two,  three,  or  four  verses ;  but 
a  few  of  them  consist  entirely  of  a  single  kind  of  verse. 

Lyric  Metres  of  Horace. 

700.  For  convenience  of  reference  the  following  out- 
line of  the  Lyric  metres  of  Horace  is  here  inserted. 

A.  Stanzas  of  Four  Verses. 

I.  Alcaic  Stanza. — ^First  and  second  verses,  Greater  Alcaics 
(692) ;  third,  Iambic  Dimeter  Hypermeter  (685.  L) ;  fourth,  Al- 
caic (691.  II.). 


^:i::n 


4.    i.«w|i.wwji.u:i.v/ 

In  thirtj-seven  Odes:  I.  9, 16, 17,  26,  27,  29,  31,  34,  35,  37  ;  II.  I,  3,  5, 
7,  9, 11, 13,  U,  15, 17,  19,  20 ;  III.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 17,  21,  23,  26,  29  ;  IV.  4, 
9,  14, 15. 

II.  Sappiiio  and  Adonic. — The  first  three  verses,  Sapphics 
(691.  IV.);  the  fourth,  Adonic  (677.  III.). 

1. 
2. 
8. 
4. '  i.  «  w  I  i.  ^ 

In  Twenty-six  Odes :  I.  2,  10, 12,  20,  22,  25,  80,  32,  88 ;  II.  2,  4,  6,  8, 10, 
15 ;  III.  8,  11,' 14,  18,  20,  22,  27 ;  IV.  2,  6,  11,  and  Sec.  Hymn. 

III.  AsolepiadEan  and  Gltconic. — The  first  three  verses, 
Asclepiadeans  (689.  III.) ;  the  fourth,  Glyconic  (689.  I.). 


1.)  J> 

2.  J.i.-|i.uv.i.jJ.s/v.i.|v_ 

3.)  J> 


4.    J.^\±..±\ 
In  nine  Odes:  I.  6,  15,  24,  33;  II.  12;  III.  10, 16;  IV.  5, 12. 
IV.   AsOLEPlADfiAN,  PlIERECEATfiAN,  AND  GlTCONIO. — The  first 

two  verses,  Asclepiadeans  (689.  III.);  the  third,  Pherecratean 
(689.  IL) ;  the  fourth,  Glyconic  (689. 1.). 

3.  J._|±.vJ.jw 

J. 

4.  i._|J.v..X|w» 

In  seven  Odes :  I.  5, 14,  21,  23 ;  III.  7, 13 ;  IV.  13. 


METRES    OP    H  OK  ACE. 


317 


B.  Stanzas  of  Three  Verses. 

V.  Ionic  a  Minoee  (687). — The  first  two  verses,  Tetrameters* 
the  third,  Dimeter. 


3.     V 
In  Ode  III.  12. 


C  Stanzas  of  Two  Verses. 

VI.  Iambio  Teimetee  and  Iambic  Dimeter  (683,  685). 
1. 


I 
L    :    ^  L       ^  J.    \  sj- 

w   w     !  . 


In  the  first  ten  Epodes. 

yn.  Glyconic  and  Asclepiadean  (689.  L,  III.). 

1.  i.    -   }   i.    w    u    i.  j   .    £ 

2.  See  IV.  1. 

In  twelve  Odes :  I.  3, 13, 19,  36 ;  III.  9, 15, 19,  24,  25,  28 ;  IV.  1,  3. 

Vm.  Hexameter  and  Dactylic  Tetkametee  (671 ;  677. 1.). 


1. 


In  two  Odes :  I.  7,  28,  and  Epode  12. 

IX.  Hexameter  and  Dactylic  Trimetbr  Catalbctio  (671; 

677.  n.). 

1.  See  VIII.  1. 

2.    JLvvji-wwll 

In  Ode  IV.  7. 

X.  Hexameter  and  Iambic  Trimeter  (671,  683). 
See  VIII.  1  and  VI.  1. 

In  Epode  16. 

XI.  Hexameter  and  Iambic  Dimeter  (671,  685). 
See  VIII.  1  and  VI.  2. 

In  Epodes  14  and  15. 


318 


METRES    OF   HORACE. 


XII.  Hexameteb  axd  Iambico-Dactylio  (671,  694). 

1.  See  VIII.  1. 

"  J,  J. 

2.:lr^|::i"-!|^-|^" 

In  Epode  13. 

XIII.  Iambio  Teimetee  and  Dactylico-Iambio  (683,  693). 
1.  See  VI.  1. 


2. 


ii:-l 


In  Epode  11. 

XIV.  Troohaio  Dimeter  Catalectio  and  Iambio  Tbimbteb 

Catalectic  (681,  684). 


1. 


2. 


r    ..   '    f 


In  Ode  II.  18. 

XV.   Greater  Arouiloohian  and  Iambio  Trimeter  Cata- 
UEOTio  (691.  I. ;  684). 


2.  See  XIV.  2. 
In  Ode  I.  4. 

XVI.  Aristophanio  AND  Greater  Sapphio  (691.  III. ;  690  U). 

1.  j.«w    j±w:i.r 

In  Ode  I.  8. 

D.   Verses  used  Singly/. 

XVII.  AsclepiadEan  (689.  III.). 

In  three  Odes :  I.  1 ;  III.  30 ;  IV.  8. 

XVIII.  Greater  AsclepiadEan  (689.  IV.). 

JL_ji.wwi.|i.w».i.|i.wwi.|vi 

In  three  Odes :  1. 11, 18 ;  lY.  10. 

XIX.  Iambio  Trimeter  (683).    See  YI.  1. 
In  Epode  17. 


METRES   OP    HORACE. 


319 


701.  Index  to  the  Lyric  Metres  op  Horace. 

The  Roman  numerals  refer  to  articles  in  the  preceding  outline, 


Odes. 

1, 

2, 

3, 

•t, 

6» 

6, 

V, 

8, 

9, 
10, 
11, 
12, 
13, 
14, 
15, 
16, 

n, 

18, 
19, 
20, 

21, 
22, 
23, 
24, 
25, 
26, 
27, 
28, 
29, 
80, 
81, 
82, 
.33, 
34, 
35, 
36, 
37, 
88, 


Metres. 
XVII. 

II. 

VII. 
XV. 
IV. 

III. 

VIII. 
XVI. 

I. 
II. 

XVIII. 

II. 

VII. 
IV. 

III. 
I. 
I. 

XVIII. 
VII. 

II. 

IV. 

II. 

IV. 

III. 
II. 

I. 

I. 

VIII. 

I. 
II. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

I. 

I. 

VII. 

I. 

II. 


BOOK   II. 


Odes, 

4, 

5, 

6, 

*?, 

8, 

9, 
10, 

11, 
12, 
13, 
H, 
15, 
16, 
IV, 
18, 

19, 
20, 


1, 

2, 
8, 
4, 
6, 
6, 
% 
8, 
9. 
10, 

11, 
12, 
13, 

14, 

15, 
16, 

17, 
18, 
19, 
20, 
21, 
22, 
28, 
24, 
26, 


Metres. 
II. 

I. 
II. 

I. 
II. 

I. 
II. 

I. 
III. 

I. 

I. 

I. 
II. 

I. 
XIV. 

I. 
I. 


BOOK  III. 


I. 
I. 
I. 
I. 
I. 
I. 

IV. 

II. 

VII. 

III. 
II. 

V. 
IV. 

II. 

VII. 

III. 

I. 

II. 

VII. 

II. 
I. 
II. 
I. 

VII. 
VII. 


Odes. 

26, 

27, 

28, 

29, 

30, 


700. 
Matre& 
I. 

u 

VII. 

I. 
xva' 


BOOK   IV. 


V, 

8, 

9, 

10, 

11, 
12, 
13, 
14, 
15, 


Epodes. 

1,  ... 

2,  ... 
8,     ... 

4,  .., 

5,  ... 


10,     

11,     

12 

13 

14,     

15 

16,     

IV, 

SECULAR  HTinf, 


vn, 

II. 

VII. 

I. 

III. 

II. 

IX. 

XVII. 

I. 

xvni. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

I. 
I. 


Metres. 

VI. 

VI. 

VI. 

VI. 

VI. 

VI. 

VI. 

VI. 

VI. 

VI. 

XIII. 

VIII. 

XII. 

XI. 

XI. 

X. 

XIX. 


ii. 


APPENDIX 


I.  Figures  of  Speech. 

702.  A  Figure  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary /orm, 
construction^  or  signification  of  words. 

Deviations  from  the  ordinary  forms  are  called  Figures  of  Etymology; 
from  the  ordinary  constructions,  Figures  of  Syntax,  and  from  the  ordinary 
significations,  Figures  of  Rhetoric, 

7C3.  The  Figures  of  Etymology  are  the  following : 

1.  Aphaeresis  takes  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  beginning  of  a  word  :  '«<  for  est 

2.  Syncope  takes  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  middle  of  a  word:  v\mm  for 
clrorwm,  dixe  for  dixisse. 

3.  Apocope  takes  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  end  of  a  word  :  tun''  for  tune. 

4.  Peosthesis  prefixes  a  letter  or  syllable  to  a  word:  tetuli  for  tuli. 

5.  Epenthesis  inserts  a  letter  or  syllable  in  a  word :  Alcumena  for  Alcmena, 
alituum  for  dltfum, 

6.  Pakagoge  adds  a  letter  or  syllable  to  a  word :  dicier  for  diet. 

7.  Metathesis  transposes  letters  or  syllables :  pistris  for  pristis. 

8.  Antithesis  substitutes  one  letter  for  another :  volnus  for  vulnns,  olli  for  illi^ 
See  also  Figures  of  Prosody,  669. 

7C4.  The  Figures  of  Syntax  are  the  following  : 

I.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  of  a 
sentence  : 

H3,bitabat  ad  JSvis  {sc,  iemplum),  He  dwelt  near  tJie  temple  of  Jupiter, 
Lir.     Abiit,  Cvasit  {et),  He  has  gone,  has  escaped.  Cic. 

1.  Asyndeton  is  an  ellipsis  of  a  conjunction.    See  5S7.  I.  6;  587,  IIL  4 

2.  Zeugma  is  an  ellipsis  which  employs  a  single  verb  with  two  subjects  or  ob- 
jects, though  strictly  applicable  to  only  one : 

Pacem  an  bellum  gorens,  whether  at  peace  (Jigens)  or  waging  war.  Sail 

8.  Aposiopesis,  also  called  Jieticentia,  used  for  rhetorical  effect,  is  an  ellipsia 

which  leaves  the  sentence  unfinished: 

Quos  ego sed  motos  praestat  componere  fluctus.    Whom  I but  it  is  let- 

.ter  to  calm  the  troubled  waves.  Virg. 

4.  Peovekbs  are  often  elliptical. 

5.  Ellipsis  of  Facio,  Dico,  Obo,    See  460.  8 ;  602,  IL  8. 

II.  Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  superfluous  words  : 

Erant  itinera  duo,  quibus  itineribus  exire  possent,  There  were  two  ways 
by  which  ways  they  migJd  depart.  Caes.  Eurusque  NStusque  ruunt,  Both 
Ew^iLS  and  Notus  rush  forth.  Virg. 

1.  Polysyndeton  is  a  pleonasm  in  the  use  of  conjunctions,  as  in  the  last  example, 

2.  Hendiadys  is  the  use  of  two  nouns  with  a  conjunction,  Instead  of  a  uoun 
with  an  adjective  or  genitive: 


FIGURES   OF   SPEECH.  321 

AnnU  vlrl»que,/ar  tItIs  armutls,  tcith  armed  men.  Tac. 

8.  Anaphora  Is  the  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  beginning  of  suocessiTC  clauses  : 
Me  cuncta  Italia,  me  universa  civitas  consulcm  dcciarivit,  Me  all  Italy,  me  the 
tchole  state  declared  consul.  Cic. 

4.  Epiphora  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  end  of  Buccessiv«  clauses: 
Laelius  nilvus  drat,  doctus  frat,  Laeliut  teas  diligent,  icaa  learned.  Cic. 

5.  Monosyllabic  prepositions  are  often  repeated  before  saccesslve  nouns,  regu* 
tarly  bo  with  et — et : 

Et  in  bcllicis  et  in  civllibns  officiis,  both  in  military  and  in  civil  offices.  Cic. 
Other  prepositions  are  som«tlmc8  repeated. 

6.  A  demonstrative,  pronoun  or  adverb,  trf,  hoc,  illud,  sic,  Ita,  Is  often  used 
somewhat  redundantly  to  represent  a  subsequent  clause.  So  also  quid,  In  quid  censes 
with  a  clause: 

lUud  te  6ro  ut  dllif,'en8  sis,  /  ask  you  (that  thing)  to  he  (that  you  be)  diligent.  Cic 

7.  Pronouns  redundant  with  quldem.    See  446.  1. 

8.  Pleonasm  often  occurs  with  licet : 

Ut  liceat  permittitur  =  licet,  It  is  lawful  (is  permitted  that  it  is,  Ac.).  Cic 

9.  A  word  is  often  repeated  for  emphasis. 

10.  Circumlocutions  with  res,  g^nus,  mddus,  and  rdtio  are  common. 

III.  Enallage  is  tlio  substitution  of  one  part  of  speech 
for  another,  or  of  one  grammatical  form  for  another  : 

P(5pulus  late  rex  (for  regnans),  a  people  of  extensive  sway  (ruling  exten- 
sively). Virg.  Serus  {se7-o)  in  coelum  redeas,  i/ay  you  return  late  to  heaven. 
Hor.     Vina  cadis  (vinis  cados)  onferare,  to  Jill  theflmks  with  wine.  Virg. 

1.  AntimerIa  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another,  as  in  the  first  two  ex- 
amples. 

2.  Htpallage  is  the  use  of  one  case  for  another,  as  in  the  last  example 

8.  Stnebis  is  a  construction  according  to  sense,  without  regard  to  grammatical 
forms.    See  438.  6  and  461. 

4.  ANACOLJhTHON  is  a  want  of  harmony  in  the  construction  of  the  different  parts 
of  a  sentence : 

61,  ut  dicunt,  omncs  Gralos  esse  (^Graii  sunt),  if,  as  they  say,  all  are  Greeks.  Cic. 

ly.  Hyperbaton  is  a  transposition  of  words  or  clauses : 

Praeter  arma  nihil  6rat  siiper  (supererat),  Nothing  remained,  except  thAr 
arms.  Nep.    VSlet  atque  vivit  {vivit  atque  valet),  He  is  alive  and  well.  Ter. 

1.  Anasteophe  is  the  transposition  of  words  only,  as  in  the  first  example. 

2.  IItstebox  Proteron  is  a  transposition  of  clauses,  as  in  the  second  example. 

3.  Tmesis  is  the  separation  of  a  compound  word.     See  523.  'Z.  2). 

705.  Figures  of  Rhetoric,  also  called  Tropes,  comprise 
jseveral  varieties.     The  following  are  the  most  important. 

I.  Metaphor. — This  is  an  implied  comparison,  and  as- 
signs to  one  object  the  appropriate  name,  epithet  or  action 
of  another : 

Rei  pQbllcae  vulnus  (for  damnum),  the  wound  of  the  republic.  Cic. 
NaufrSgium  fortQnae,  the  wreck  of  fortune.  Cic. 

II.  Metonymy  is  tlie  use  of  one  name  for  another 
naturally  suggested  by  it  : 


322  APPENDIX. 

Aequo  Marte  (for  proelio)  pugnStum  est,  TJiey  fought  in  an  equal  eon- 
test.  Lir.    Fiirit  VulcSnus  {ignis),  The  fire  rages.  Virg. 

By  this  figure  the  cause  is  often  put  for  the  effect  and  the  effect  for  the  cause; 
the  property  for  the  possessor,  the  place  or  age  for  the  people,  the  sign  for  the  thing 
signified,  etc.:  Mars  for  helium,  Vulcdnus  for  ignis,  Bacchus  for  v'lnum,  nvbUUas 
for  noblles,  Graecia  for  Graeci,  laureafor  victoria,  etc. 

III.  Synecdoche  is  the  use  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  or 
of  the  whole  for  a  part ;  of  the  special  for  the  general,  or 
of  the  general  for  the  special : 

In  vestra  tecta  (vestras  domos)  disc6dite,  Depart  to  your  homes.  Cic. 
StStio  male  fida  carinis  (ndvibus),  a  station  unsafe foi'  ships.  Virg. 

IV.  Irony  is  the  use  of  a  word  for  its  opposite  : 

LfigStos  honus  (for  malus)  imp6r2tor  vester  non  admlsit,  Your  good 
commander  did  not  admit  the  ambassadors.  Liv. 

1.  Enim,  itinim,  scilicet,  videlicet,  nlmJrum,  credo,  and  the  like,  are  often 
ironical.    See  503.  3. 

Y.  Hyperbole  is  an  exaggeration  : 

Ventis  et  fulminis  Scior  alls,  swifter  than  the  winds  and  the  wings  of  the 
lightning.  Virg. 

VI.  Litotes  denies  something  instead  of  affirming  the 
opposite : 

Non  6pus  est  =  pernlciOsum  est,  It  is  not  necessary.  Cic. 


II.  Latin  Authors. 

703.  The  history  of  Roman  literature  embraces  about 
eight  centuries,  from  250  B.  C.  to  550  A.  D.,  and  has  been 
divided  by  Dr.  Freund  into  three  principal  periods  : 

L  The  Ante-Classical  Peeiod.— From  250  to  81  B.  C.  The 
principal  authors  of  this  period  are : 

Ennius,  Plautus,  Terence,  Lucretius. 

II.  The  Classical  Period. — This  embraces  the  Golden  and 
the  Silver  age : 

1.  The  Golden  Age.—From  81  B.  C.  to  14  A.  D.  The  principal 
authors  are : 

Cicero,  Nepos,  Horace,  Tibullus, 

Caesar,  Li^y,  Ovid,  Propertius. 

Sallust,  Virgil,  Catullus, 

2.  The  Siker  Age.— From  U  to  180  A.  D.  The  principal 
nuthors  are : 


LATIN    AUTIIOKS.      KOMAN    CALENDAR.  S-'Ji 

Phaednis,  The  Pliuics,  Quintilian,         Persius, 

Velleius,  Tacitus,  Suetonius,         Lucan, 

The  Senccas,       Curlius,  Juveual,  Martial. 

Til.  The  Post-Classical  Pekiod. — This  embraces  the  Brazen 
nnd  the  Iron  Age : 

1.  The  Brazen  Age.—Yi'om  180  to  47G  A.D.  The  principal 
authors  are : 

Justin,  Eutropius,  Lactantius,         Claudian, 

Victor,  Macrobius,  Ausonius,  Tercntian. 

2.  The  Iron  Age. — From  4VG  to  550  A.D.  Tlie  principal  au- 
thors are : 

Boethiu3,  Cassiodorus,  Justinian,  Pripcian. 

III.  The  Roman  Calendar. 

707.  The  Julian  Calendar  of  the  Romans  is  the  basis 
of  our  own,  and  is  identical  with  it  in  the  number  of  months 
in  the  year  and  in  the  number  of  days  in  the  months. 

708.  Peculiarities. — The  Roman  calendar  has  the  fol- 
lowing peculiarities : 

I.  The  days  were  not  numbered  from  the  beginning  of  the 
month,  as  with  us,  but  from  three  different  points  in  the  month  : 

1.  Tlie  Calends,  the^r«^  of  each  month  ; 

2.  The  Nones,  XhQjifth^ — bat  the  secenth  in  March,  May,  July, 
and  October  ; 

3.  The  Ides,  the  thirteenth^— hwt  the  fifteenth  in  March,  May, 
July,  and  October. 

II.  From  these  three  points  the  days  were  numbered,  not  for- 
ward, but  backward. 

Hence  after  the  Ides  of  each  month,  the  days  were  numbered  from  the 
Calends  of  the  following  mouth. 

III.  In  numbering  backward  from  each  of  these  points,  the 
day  before  each  was  denoted  by  pfidie  Cdlendas^  Nonas,  etc. ;  the 
second  before  each  by  die  tertio  (not  secundo;  third,  not  second) 
ante  Cdlendas^  etc.,  the  third,  by  die  quarto^  etc.,  and  so  on  through 
the  month. 

L  NcMEnAia.— This  peculiarity  in  the  use  of  the  numerals,  designating  the 
teeond  day  before  the  Calends,  etc.,  as  the  Viird,  and  the  third  as  the  fourth,  etc..^ 
arises  from  tlie  fact  that  the  Calends,  etc.,  were  themselves  counted  as  the  first. 
Thus  prldie  ante  Cd!e7idu«  becomes  the  second  before  the  Calends,  die  tei'tio  ante: 
Cdlendax,  the  third,  etc. 

2.  Name  op  Moxtii.— In  dates  the  name  of  the  month  is  added  in  the  form  of  an 
adjective  in  agreement  with  Cdlendaf>,  Nonas,  etc.,  as,  die  quarto  ante  Nonas  Jdti' 
ttdriajt,  often  sliortencd  t<>,  quarto  ante  Nonas  Jan.  or  J  V.  ante  Nonas  Jan.  or  with- 
out ante,  .-us  IV.  Notu/y  -fini  .  tin-  Mfim-i  nf  .Tr.niiary. 
J5 


324 


APPENDIX. 


8.  Ante  diem.— Instead  of  die — ante,  ante  diem  is  common,  as,  ante  diem 
quartum  Nonas  Jari.  for  die  quarto  ante  Nonas  Jan, 

4.  As  Indeclinable  Nouns.— The  expressions  ante  diem — Oxi.,  eta,  prldie 
Cat.,  etc.,  are  often  used  as  iudeciinab'e  nouns  with  a  preposition,  as,  ex  ante  diem 
V.  Jdus  Oct,,  from  the  11th  of  Oct.  Liv.  Ad  prldie  A^u«s  JJaias,  till  the  6th  of 
May.  Cio. 

709.  Calendar  for  the  Year. 


Days  of 

March,  May,  July, 

Jan.  Aug. 

April,   June, 

the  Month. 

Oct. 

December. 

Sept,  Nov. 

February. 

1 

Calendis.' 

Calendis. 

Calendis. 

Calendis. 

2 

VI.        Nonas.! 

IV.         Nonas. 

IV.         Nonas. 

IV.         Nonas. 

8 

V. 

III. 

IIL 

IIL 

4 

IV. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

5 

III. 

NONIS. 

NONIS. 

NONIS. 

6 

Pridie  Nonas. 

VIII.     Idus. 

VIIL     Idus. 

VIIL  Idus. 

7 

NoNis. 

VII. 

VI L 

VIL 

8 

VIII.     Idus. 

VI. 

VL 

VI. 

9 

VII. 

V. 

V. 

V.               " 

10 

VI. 

IV. 

IV. 

IV. 

11 

V.              " 

III. 

IIL 

IIL 

12 

IV. 

Pridio  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

13 

III. 

Idibus. 

iDIBrS. 

Idibus. 

14 

Pridie  Idus. 

XIX.     Calend.-» 

XVIIL  Calend.2 

XVI.     Calend.a 

15 

Idibus. 

XVIII.        " 

XVIL 

XV. 

16 

XVII.   Calend.2 

XVII. 

XVL 

XIV. 

17 

XVL 

XVI. 

XV. 

XIIL 

18 

XV.             " 

XV.             " 

XIV. 

XIL            " 

19 

XIV. 

XIV. 

XIIL 

XL 

20 

XIII.           " 

XIII.           " 

XIL 

X. 

21 

XII. 

XII. 

XL 

IX. 

22 

XL 

XL 

X. 

VIIL 

23 

X 

X. 

IX. 

VIL 

24 

IX. 

IX. 

VIIL 

VL 

25 

vm. 

VIIL 

VIL 

V.  (VL)»     " 

26 

VII. 

VI L 

VL 

IV.  (V.)      " 

27 

VI.               " 

VI. 

V. 

IIL  (IV.)     " 

28 

V. 

V.                " 

IV. 

Prid.  Cal  (IILCal.) 

29 

IV. 

IV. 

IIL 

(Prid.  Cal.) 

80 

III. 

IIL 

Pridie  Calend. 

31 

Pridie  Calend. 

Pridie  Calend. 

710.  English  and  Latin  Dates.— The  tshle  (709)  will  fur- 
nish the  leai-ner  with  the  English  expression  for  any  Latin  date, 
or  the  Latin  expression  for  any  English  date ;  but  in  translating 
Latin,  it  may  be  convenient  also  to  have  the  following  rule : 

I.  If  the  day  is  numbered  from  the  !N"ones  or  Ides,  subtract 
the  number  diminished  by  one  from  the  number  of  the  day  on 
which  the  Nones  or  Ides  fall  : 


*  To  the  Calends,  Nones,  etc.,  the  name  of  the  month  must  of  course  be  added. 
Before  Nonas,  Idus,  etc.,  ante  is  sometime.^  used  and  sometimes  omitted  (70S.  III.  2). 

^  The  Calends  of  the  following  month  are  of  course  meant,  as  the  ISth  of  March 
for  instance  is,  XVIL  Calendas  AprUen. 

»  The  cnclosv?d  forms  apply  to  Uap-year. 


IIOMAN    CALENDAR.       MONEY.  325 

VIII.  ante  Idus  Jau.  =  13  —  (8  —  1)  =  13  —  7  =  6th  of  January. 

II.  If  the  day  is  numbered  from  the  Calends  of  the  following 
month,  subtract  the  number  diminished  by  two  from  the  number 
of  days  in  the  current  mouth : 

XVIII.  ante  Cal.  Feb.  =  31  -  (18  -  2)  =  31  -  16  =  loth  of 
January. 

In  Leap-year  the  2-4th  and  25th  February  are  both  called  the  sixth  before  tht 
Caleads  of  March,  VI.  Cal.  Mart.  The  days  before  the  24th  are  numbered  precisely 
as  if  the  month  contained  as  usual  only  2S  days,  but  the  days  after  the  25th  are  num* 
bered  regubrly  for  a  month  of  29  days:  V.,  JV.,  III.  Cal.  Mart.,  and  prldie  Cal. 
Mart. 

711.  Divisions  of  Day  and  Night.— The  Roman  day,  from 
sun-rise  to  sun-set,  and  the  night  from  sun-set  to  sun-rise,  were 
each  divided  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  into  twelve  hours. 

1.  Night  "Watcues.— The  night  was  also  divided  into  four  watches  of  three 
Itoman  hours  each. 

2.  Length  of  Roman  IIoue.— The  hour,  being  uniformly  x'l  of  the  day  or  of  the 
night,  of  course  varied  in  length,  with  the  length  of  tho  day  or  night  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year. 

lY.  Roman  Money,  Weights,  and  Measures. 

712.  Coins. — ^The  principal  Roman  coins  were  the  as, 
of  copper,  the  sestertius,  qulndrius,  denarius,  of  silver,  and 
the  aureus,  of  gold.  Their  value  in  the  classical  period  was 
as  follows : 

As, 1  to  2  cents. 

Sestertius, 4  " 

Quiniirius, 8  ♦' 

Denarius, 16  " 

Aureus  =  25  denarii,       ....       $4.00. 

1.  As— xnz  Unit  of  Monet.— The  As  was  originally  the  unit  of  ihe 
Koman  currency,  and  contained  a  pound  of  copper,  but  it  was  diminished 
from  time  to  time  in  weight  and  vahie  till  at  last  it  contained  only  "a^  of  a 
pound. 

But  whatever  its  weight,  ,',  of  tho  a»  is  always  called  an  uncia,  ^'j  a  sextans,  ^ 
«  quadrant,  ^\j  a  trUns,  y*,  a  quincunx,  y",  a  semU,  /,  a  sejitunae,  ,*,  a  bea,  ,»,  a  d©- 
clrans,  {;  a  dent  ana,  \\  a  deunx. 

2.  Sestkutius,  QtiNARiDS,  AND  Denarics.— The  sestertius  contained  ori- 
ginally 2k  asses,  the  qulndrius  5,  and  the  dindrius  10  ;  but  as  the  as  depre- 
ciated in  value,  the  number  of  asses  in  these  coins  was  increased. 

3.  As— THE  General  Unit  of  Computation.— The  as  is  also  used  as 
the  unit  in  other  things  as  well  as  iu  money.     Thus 

1)  In  Weight.— The  as  is  then  a  pound,  and  tho  uncia  an  ounce. 

2)  In  Measure.— tYie  as  Is  then  a  foot  or  a  jugt^rum  (718),  and  the  uncta  la  -^  ot 
ft  l''>ot  jt  of  a  Jugcrum. 


326  APPENDIX. 

3)  In  Interest— The  as  is  then  the  unit  of  interest,  which  was  one  per  cent,  a 
month,  i.  c.,  twelve  per  ,\ear,  the  uucia  is  i*j  per  month,  i.  e.,  1  per  year,  and  the 
iemis  is  i",-  per  month,  i.  e.,  6  per  year,  etc. 

4)  In  Inheritance.— The  as  is  then  the  whole  estate,  and  the  uncia  ^\  of  it: 
hires  ex  asse,  heir  of  the  whole  estate  ;  hires  ex  dodrante,  heir  of  ^\. 

713.  Computation  of  Money. — In  all  sums  of  money 
the  common  unit  of  computation  was  the  sestertius^  also 
called  nummus  ;  but  four  special  points  deserve  notice  : 

I.  In  all  sums  of  money,  the  units,  tens,  and  hundreds  are  de- 
noted by  sestertii  with  the  proper  cardinals : 

Quinque  sestertii,  5  sesterces,  viginti  sestertii,  20  sesterces,  diicenti  ses- 
tertii, 200  sesterces. 

II.  One  thousand  sesterces  are  denoted  by  mille  sestertii,  or 
mille  sestertium. 

III.  In  sums  less  than  1,000,000  sesterces,  the  thousands  are 
denoted  either  (1)  by  millia  sestertium  (gen.  plur.),  or  (2)  by  ses- 
tertia  : 

Duo  millia  sestertium,  or  duo  sestertia,  2,000  sesterces ;  quinque  millia 
sestertium,  or  quinque  sestertia,  5,000  sesterces 

With  sestertia  the  distributives  >Yere  generally  used,  as,  llna  sestertia, 
for  duo  sestertia. 

IV.  In  sums  containing  one  or  more  millions  of  sesterces,  ses-^ 
tertimn  with  the  value  of  100,000  sesterces  is  used  with  the  propei 
numeral  adverb,  decies,  vicies,  etc.     Thus 

D6cies  sestertium,  1,000,000  (10  X  100,000)  sesterces;  Vicies  sestertium, 
8,000,0u0  (20  X  100,000)  sesterces. 

1.  Skstertiitm. — In  the  examples  under  IV.,  sestertium  is  treated  and  declined 
as  a  neuter  noun  in  the  gingalar,  though  originally  it  was  probably  the  genitive  plur. 
oi sestertius,  and  the  full  expression  for  1,000,000  sesterces  was  Decies  centena  millia 
sestertium.  Centena  millia  was  afterward  generally  omitted,  and  finally  sester- 
tium, lost  its  force  as  a  genitive  plural,  and  became  a  neuter  noun  in  the  singular, 
capable  of  declension 

2.  Sesteutium  Omitted.— Sometimes  sestertium,  is  omitted,  leaving  only  the 
numeral  adverb :  as,  decies,  1,000,000  sesterces. 

3.  Sign  HS.— The  sign  IIS,  is  often  used  for  sestertii,  and  sometimes  for  sester- 
tia, or  sestertium, : 

Decern  HS  =  10  sesterces  (H3  =  sestertii).  Dena  IIS  =  10,000  sesterces  (113 
=  sestertia).    Decies  IIS  =  1,000,000  sesterces  (HS  =i  sestertium). 

714.  "Weight. — The  ba<is  of  Roman  weights  is  the  Libra, 
also  called  As  or  Pondo,  equal  probably  to  about  11 1  ounces  avoir- 
dupois. 

1.  Ounces.— The  Llhra,  like  the  as  in  money,  is  divided  into  12  parts  called  by 
the  names  given  under  712. 1. 

2.  Feactions  of  Ouncks.— Parts  of  ounces  also  have  special  names:  \  =  semi- 
tmcia,  I  =  duella,  \  =  slcilicus,  I  -  sextiila,  i  =  drachma,  ^^  =  scriipiilum,  J^  =  ob- 
elus. 


WEIGHTS.      MEASURES.      ABBREYIATIONS. 


32' 


715.  Dey  Measure.— The  Modius  is  the  basis,  equal  to  about 
A  peck. 

1.  Sextarics.— This  is  j>u  of  a  mndius. 

2.  Parts  of  tjik  SiixxAKiub. — These  have  special  names:  \  =  hcmlna,  J  =  fic6- 
labulum,  y',  =  cyathus. 

716.  Liquid  Measure. — T\\q  Amph6ra  is  the  most  conven- 
ient unit  of  the  Roman  liquid  measure,  and  contained  a  Koman 
cubic  foot,  equivalent  probably  to  about  seven  gallons,  wine  measure. 

1.  CcLETS. — Twenty  amplwrae  make  one  Ciileus. 

2.  Parts  of  Amphora. — These  have  spfcial  names:  \  =  nma,  |  =r  congius,  -^ 


sextirius,  ^V  =  hcmlaa, 


quartanus, 


acetabulum. 


cyathus. 


717.  Long  Measure. — The  I'asis  of  this  measure  is  the  Ro- 
man foot,  equivalent  to  about  11. G  inches. 

1.  Combixatioxs  of  Feet.— Pahuipes  =  IJ  Eoman  feet;  cubitus  =  1^;  passoa 
=  5;  stadium  =  625. 

2.  Parts  of  Foot.— Palmus  =  {  foot ;  uncia  =  ,\ ;  digitus  =  ^V- 

718.  Square  Measure. — The  basis  of  this  measure  is  the 
Jiigerum,  containing  28,800  Roman  square  feet,  equivalent  to  about 
six  tenths  of  an  acre. 

The  parts  of  the  jiigirum  have  the  same  name  as  those  of  the  As:  uncia  =  ,\, 
sextans  =  ^'^  etc.    Sec  712. 1. 


A.  =  Aulus. 
Ap.  =  Appius. 

C.  (G.)  =  Caius(Gaius). 
Cn.    (Gn.)    =    Cuueu3 

(Gnaeus). 

D.  =  Di'clinus. 


V.  Abbreyiatioxs. 

719.  JSfames. 

L.  =  Lucius. 
M.  =  Marcus. 
M'.  =  Manias. 
Mam.  =  Mamercus. 
N.  =  Xuraerius. 
P.  =  Publius. 


Q.  (Qu.)  =  Quintus. 
S.  (Sex.)  =  Sextus. 
Ser.  =  SiTviua. 
Sp.  =  Spurius. 
T.  =  Titus. 
Ti.  (Tib.)  =  TiWSrius. 


720.   Other  Abbreviations. 


A.  D.  =  ante  diem. 

Aed,  =  aedilis. 

A.  U.  C.  =  anuo  urbis 

condltae. 
Cal.  (Kal.)  =  Calendao. 
Cos.  =  consul. 
Coss.  =  consules. 
D,  =  divus. 
I).  D.  =  dono  dSdit. 
Des.  =  desiguatiis. 
D.  M.  =  diis  manibus. 
D.  S.  =  de  8U0. 
D.  S.  P.  P.  =  dc  sua 

pi5cunia  posuit. 
Eq.  Rom.  =  Eques  RC>- 

manu.s. 
F.  =  niiu3. 


F.  C.  =  faciendum  cu- 

ravit. 
Id.  =  Idus. 
Imp.  =  imp^rator. 
Leg.  =  legatus. 
Non.  =  Jsonac. 
0.  M.  =  optlmus  max- 

imus. 
P.  C.  =  patres  conscrip- 

ti. 
Pont,  Max.  =  pontifex 

maximus. 
P.  R.   3=   populus  Ro- 

mauu.s. 
Pr.  =  praetor. 
Praef.  =  pracfectus. 


Proc.  =  proconsuh 
Q.  B.  F.  F.  Q.  S.   = 

quod    bonum,    felix, 

faustumque  sit. 
Quir.  =  Quirites. 
Resp.  =  res  publlca. 
S.  =  sfiuatus. 
S.  C.   =  senatus  con- 

sultum. 
S.  D.  P.  =  salutem  di- 

cit  plurimam. 
S.  P.  Q.  R.  =  8en5tu.s 

populusque      Roma- 

nus. 
Tr.  PI.  =  tribQnus  pie- 
big. 


INDEX   OF  VERBS. 


72 1 .  This  Index  contains  an  alphabetical  list,  not  only  of  all  the 
simple  verbs  in  common  use  which  involve  any  important  irregularities, 
but  also  of  such  compounds  as  seem  to  require  special  mention. 

But,  in  regard  to  compounds  of  prepositions,  two  important  facts 
must  be  borne  in  mind : 

1.  That  the  elements — preposition  and  verb — often  appear  in  the 
compound  in  a  changed  form.     See  338,  2,  and  341,  3. 

2.  That  the  stem-vowel  is  often  changed  in  the  Perfect  and  Supine. 

Sae  2U. 

Al-luo.      See  luo,  280. 
Alo,  ere,  Slui,  all  turn,  altum,  274. 
Amb-igO.     See  ago,  273,  II. 
Ambio,  295,  3. 
Amicio,  Ire,  ui,   turn,  285. 
Amo,  205. 

Amplector,  i,  amplexus  sum,  283. 
Ango,  ere,  anxi,  — ,  280. 
Annuo,  ere,  i,  — ,  280. 
ApSge,  def.,  297. 
Aperio,  Ire,  ui,  turn,  285. 
Apiscor,  i,  aptus  sum,  283. 
Ap-pareo.     See  joareo,  £55  ;  301. 
Ap-peto.     Seejoeto,  278,  2. 
Ap-plico.     SeejP^tco,  260. 
Ap-pono.     Seejoowo,  275. 
Arcesso,  ere,  Ivi,  itum,  278,  2. 
Ardeo,  ere,  arsi,  arsum,  269,  I. 
Aresco,  ere,  arui,  — ,  282. 
Arguo,  ere,  ui,  titum,  279. 
Ar-ripio.     See  rapio,  275. 
A-scendo.     See  scando,  273,  III. 
A-spergo.     See  spargo,  272,  II. 
A-spicio,  ere,  spexi,  spectum,  272, 

I.  2. 
As-sentior,  iri,  sonsus  sum,  288. 
As-sideo.     See  skleo,  270,  II. 
At-texo.     See  texo,  275. 
At-tineo.     See  teneo,  268. 
At-tingo.     See  tango,  273. 
At-tollo.     See  tollo,  273. 
Audeo,  ere,  ausus  sum,  271. 
Audio,  211. 

Au-fero.     See/ero,  292. 
Augeo,    ere,    auxi,    auctum,    269, 

II. 
Ave,  def.^  297. 


Abdo,  ere,  didi,  ditum,  273. 
Ab-igo.     See  ago,  273,  II. 
Ab-jicio.     S^ejacio,  273,  II. 
Ab-luo.     See  hco,  280. 
Ab-nuo.     See  annuo,  280. 
Aboleo,  ere,  evi,  itum,  264,  1. 
Abolesco,  ere,  olevi,  olitum,  277. 
Ab-ripio.     See  rapio,  275. 
Abs-con-do.     See  abdo,  273. 
Ac-cendo,  ere,  i,  censum,  273,  III. 
Ac-cido.     See  cado,  273,  I.  2. 
Ac-cino.     See  cano,  273. 
Ac-cipio.     See  capio,  273,  II. 
Ac-co]o.     See  colo,  274. 
Ac-cumbo,  ere,  ciibui,  ciibitum,  275. 
Acesco,  ere,  acui,  — ,  282. 
Ac-qulro.     See  quaero,  278,  2. 
Acuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 
Ad-do.     See  ahdo,  273. 
Ad-imo.     See  ^tno,  273,  II. 
Adipiscor,  i,  adeptus  sum,  283. 
Ad-61esco.     See  abolesco,  277. 
Ad-orior.     See  orior,  288. 
Ad-spicio.     See  aspieio,  272,  I.  2. 
Ad-sto.     See  sto,  261. 
Af-fero.     See/ero,  292. 
Agnosco.     See  nosco,  278,  3. 
Ag-gredior.     See  gradior,  283. 
Ago,  gre,  egi,  actum,  273,  II. 
Aio,  def.,  297. 
Albeo,  ere,  — ,  267. 
Algeo,  ere,  alsi,  — ,  269,  I. 
Al-licio,  ere,  lexi,  lectum,  221,  2  ; 
272,  I.  2  ;  275. 


INDEX   OF   VERBS. 


329 


B. 

Balbutio,  Ire,  —,  284,  2. 
Batuo,  ere,  i,  — ,  280. 
Bibo,  ere,  i,  — ,  280. 
Blandior,  Iri,  Itus  sum,  230. 


C. 


Com-plector,  i,  plexus  sum,  288. 
Com-pleo,  ere,  gvi,  6tum,  264. 
Com-primo.     Secpr^mo,  272,  II. 
Cora-pungo,  ere,   punxi,   punctum. 

Secpungo,  273. 
Con-cido.     See  cddo,  273,  I.  2. 
Con-cldo.     See  caedo,  273,  I.  2. 
Con-cino.     See  c&no,  273. 
Con-cludo.     See  claudo^  272,  II. 


Cado,  ere,  cuddi,  casum,  273,  I.  2. 

Caecutio,  Ire,  — ,  284,  2. 

Caedo,  ore,  cecldi,  caesum,  273, 1.  2. 

Calesco,  ere,  cSlui,  — ,  282. 

Calveo,  ere,  — ,  2G7. 

Candeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  206. 

Caneo,  ere,  — ,  267. 

Cano,  ere,  ceeini,  cantum,  273. 

CSpesso,  ere,  ivi,  Itum,  278,  2. 

Cfipio,  ere,  cepi,  captum,  222;  273, 

II. 
Carpo,  ere,  si,  turn,  272. 
CSvco,  ere,  cavi,  cautum,  270,  II. 
C6do,  ere,  cessi,  cessum,  272,  II. 
Cedo,  def.,  297. 
Cello,  ohs.    See  excelh,  274. 
C6no,  260,  2. 

Censeo,  ere,  ui,  censum,  268. 
Cerno,  ere,  cruvi,  creturn,  277. 
Cico,  ere,  civi,  oltuni,  269,  1. 
Cingo,  ere,  cinxi,  cinctum,  272. 
Circum-sisto.     See  sisto,  273. 
Clanfro,  Sre,  — ,  281. 
Claudo,  ere,  clausi,  clausum,  272,  II. 
riaudo,  ere  (to  be  lame),  — ,  281. 
Co-aiesco,  ere,  filui,  21Itum,  282. 
Co-arguo.     See  argiio,  279. 
Coepi,  dff.,  297. 
Cognosce.     Sec  nosco,  278,  3. 
Cogo,  ere,  coegi,  coactum.   See  Hjo, 

273,  II. 
Col-lldo.     See  laedo,  272,  II. 
Col-llgo.     See  %o,  273,  II. 
Col-luceo.     Sec  luceo,  269. 
('olo,  ere,  ui,  cultum,  274. 
Com-edo.     See  Mo,  291. 
Commlniscor,  i,  commentus  sum,283. 
Com-moveo,     See  mdvco,  270. 
Com-parco  (perco).    See  parco,  273, 

1.2. 
Comperio,  Ire,  peri,  pertum,  287. 
Compesco,  ere,  pescui,  — ,  275. 
Com-pingo.     Sqc  panffo,  273. 


Cou-cupisco,   ere,  cuplvi,  cupltum, 
282. 

Con-cutio.     See  qu&tio,  272,  II. 

Con-do.     See  abdo,  273. 

Con-fercio.     See/amo,  286. 

Con-fieio.     Seef&cio,  273,  II. 

Confit,  def.,  297. 

Con-fiteor.     Seefdteor,  271. 

Con-fringo.     See  franco,  273,  II. 

Congruo,  ere,  i,  — ,  280. 

Conlveo,  ere,  nivi,  nixi,  — ,  269,  I. 

Con-sero.     See  5^;-o,  276. 

Con-sisto.     See  sisto,  273. 

Con-spicio,  ere,  spexi,  spcctum,  221, 
2. 

Con-stituo.     See  smtno,  279. 

Con-sto.     See  sto,  261. 

Consucsco,  297,  I.  2. 

Consulo,  ere,  ui,  turn,  274. 

Con-temno.     See  tcmno,  281. 

Con-texo.     See  texo,  275. 

Con-tingo.     See  tango,  273  ;  301. 

Con-valesco,  ere,  vaUii,  vSlitum,  282. 

Coquo,  ere,  coxi,  coctum,  272. 

Cor-ripio.     See  rdpio,  275. 

Cor-ruo.     Sec  ruo,  279. 

Crebresco,  ere,  crebrui,  — ,  282,  II. 
j  Credo,  ere,  credidi,  creditum,  273. 
I  Crepo,  are,  ui,  itum,  260. 

Cresco,  ere,  crevi,  cretum,  277. 

Cubo,  are,  ui,  Itum,  260. 

Cudo,  ere,  cudi,  cusum,  273,  111. 

Cumbo.     See  accumbo,  275. 

Cupio,  ere,  Ivi,  itum,  221 ;  278. 

Curro,  ere,  cucurri,  cursum,  273, 1.2. 


D. 


D6-cerpo,  ere,  si,  turn,  272,  I.  1. 
Decct,  impa-s.,  299. 
De-do.     See  abdo,  273. 
De-fendo,  ere,  i,  fensum,  273,  IIL 
De-fetiscor.     See /Mscor,  283. 


330 


INDEX    OF    VERBS. 


De-fit,  def.^  297. 

Dego,  ere,  degi.     See  ago,  2Y3,  11. 
Deleo,  ere,  evi,  etum,  264. 
De-ligo.     See  lego,  273,  II. 
De-mico.     See  mico,  260. 
Demo,  ere,  dempsi,  demptum,  272. 
De-pango.     See^xoi^o,  273. 
De-primo.     See />re;.'?o,  272,  II. 
Depso,  ere,  ui,  itum,  turn,  275. 
De-scendo.     See  scando,  273,  III. 
De-silio.     See  scilio,  285. 
De-slpio.     See  sapio,  278. 
De-tendo.     See  iendo,  273. 
De-tineo.     See  teneo,  268. 
De-vertor.     See  verto,  273,  III. 
Dico,  ere,  dixi,  dictum,  272 ;  237. 
Dif-fero.     See/ero,  292. 
Dignosco.     See  7iosco,  278,  3, 
DMlgo.     See  lego,  273,  II. 
Dl-mico.     See  mu-o,  260. 
Dl-rigo,  ere,  rexi,  rectum,  272, 1. 1. 
Disco,  ere,  didici,  — ,  273. 
Dis-crepo.     See  crepo,  260. 
Dis-cumbo.     See  acnimbo,  275. 
Dis-pertior.     ^qq  par  tier,  288. 
Dis-pliceo.     Beeplacco,  265. 
Dis-sideo.     See  sedeo,  270,  II. 
Di-stinguo,     See  stinguo,  281. 
Di-sto.     See  sto,  261. 
Ditesco,  ere,  — ,  282,  II. 
Divido,  ere,  visi,  visum,  272,  II. 
Do,  dare,  dedi,  datum,  261. 
Doceo,  ere,  ui,  turn,  268. 
Domo,  are,  ui,  itum,  260. 
Duco,  ere,  duxi,  etum,  272 ;  237. 
Dulcesco,  ere,  — ,  282,  II. 
Duresco,  ere,  diirui,  — ,  282,  II. 


EIo,  ere,  edi,  esum,  273,  II. ;  291. 
E-do,  ere,  edidi,  editum,  273. 
Ef-fero.     Soe/ero,  292. 
Egeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
E-licio,  ere,  ui,  itum,  275. 
E-Ijfgo.     See  lego,  273,  II. 
E-mico.     See  rnico,  260. 
Emineo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  256. 
Emo,  ere,  emi,  emptum,  273,  II. 
E-noco,  are,  ui,  turn,  260. 
Eo,  Ire,  Ivi,  itum,  295. 
Esiirio,  Ire,  — ,  itum,  284,  2. 


E-vado,  ere,  vasi,  vasum,  272,  II. 
Evauesco,  gre,  evanui,  — ,  282. 
Ex-ardesco,  ere,  arsi,  arsum,  282. 
Exeello,  ere,  ui  (rare),  — ,  274. 
Ex-cludo.     See  claudo,  272,  II. 
Ex-curro.     See  curro,  273,  I.  2. 
Ex-olesco.     See  aholcsco,  277. 
Expedit,  impers. 

Expergiscor,  i,  experrectus  sum,  283. 
Ex-perior,  Iri,  pertus  sum,  288. 
Ex-pleo.     See  complco,  264. 
Ex-plk'o.     See/>/tco,  260. 
Ex-plodo.     Secplaitdo,  272,  II. 
Ex-stinguo,  ere,  stinxi,  stinctum,272. 
Ex-sto.     See  sto,  261. 
Ex-tendo.     See  tendo,  273,  I.  2. 
Ex-tollo.     See  tollo,  273. 


F. 


Facesso,  ere,  Ivi,  i,  itum,  278,  2. 
Facio,  ere,  feci,  factum,  221 ;  273, 

II.;  237. 
Fallo,  ere,  fefelli,  falsum,  273,  I.  2. 
Farcio,  ire,  farsi,  fartum,  farctuui, 

286. 
Fari,  def.,  297. 
Fateor,  eri,  fassus  sum,  271. 
Fatisco,  ere,  — ,  281. 
Fatiscor,  i,  — ,  283. 
FSveo,  ere,  favi,  fautum,  270,  II. 
Fendo,  obs.     See  dcfcndo,  273,  III. 
Ferio,  ire,  — ,  284,  2. 
Fero,  ferre,  tiili,  latum,  292. 
F^rOcio,  Ire,  — ,  284,  2. 
Ferveo,  ere,  fcrvi,  ferbui,  — ,  270,  III. 
Fido,  ere,  fisus  sum,  283. 
Figo,  ere,  fixi,  fixura,  272,  II. 
Findo,  ere,  f  idi,  fissum,  273,  III. 
Fingo,  ere,  finxi,  fictum,  272,  I. 
Fio,  fieri,  factus  sum,  294. 
Flaveo,  ere,  — ,  267. 
Flecto,  ere,  xi,  xum,  272,  II. 
Fleo,  ere,  evi,  etum,  264. 
Floreo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
FlOresco,  ere,  fiorui,  — ,  282. 
Fluo,  ere,  fluxi,  fluxum,  279,  1. 
Fodio,  ere,  fudi,  fossum,  221 ;  273,  II. 
Forem,  def.,  297,  III.  2. 
Foveo,  ere,  fovi,  fotum,  270,  II. 
Frango,  ere,  fregi,  fractum,  273,  IL 
Fremo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  274. 


IXDEX    OF   VEKBS. 


331 


Frondo,  tre,  — ,   fressum,  fresum, 

272,  II. 
Frico,  are,  ui,  atum,  turn,  260. 
Frigeo,  6re,  frixi  (rare),  — ,  269,  I. 
Frondeo,  6re,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Fruor,  i,  fructus,  frmtuis  sum,  283. 
Fagio,  Sre,  fugi,  fugitum,  221 ;  273, 

II. 
Fulcio,  Ire,  fulsi,  fultum,  286. 
Fulgeo,  Gre,  fulsi,  — ,  269,  I. 
Fulmtuat,  impers.,  300. 
Fundo,  ere,  fudi,  fusum,  273,  II. 
Fungor,  i,  functus  sum,  283. 
Fiiro,  ore,  ui,  — ,  271. 


Gannio,  Ire,  — ,  284,  2. 
Gaudeo,  ere,  gavlsus  sum,  271. 
Gemo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  274. 
Gero,  Sre,  gessi,  gestum,  272. 
Gigno,  Sre,  g§nui,  genitum,  274. 
Glisco,  ere,  — ,  281. 
Gridior,  i,  gressus  sum,  221 ;  283. 
Grandesco,  ere,  — ,  282,  II. 
Grandinat,  impers.,  300. 
Gravesco,  ere,  — ,  282,  II. 


n. 


Hacreo,  ere,  haesi,  haesum,  269,  I. 
Haurio,  ire,  hausi,  haustum,  haustu- 

rus,  hausurus,  286. 
Hebeo,  ere,  — ,  267. 
Ilisco,  ere,  — ,  281. 
Horreo,  Gre,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Hortor,  226. 
Humeo,  ere,  — ,  267. 


I. 


leo,  ere,  Ici,  ictum,  273,  III. 
Il-llcio,  ere,  lexi,  lectum,  221 :  272, 

I.  2. 
n-lldo.     See  lacdo,  272,  II, 
Imbuo,  gre,  ui,  utum,  279. 
Immlneo,  ere,  — ,  267. 
Im-parco.     See  parco^  273,  I.  2. 
Im-pertior.     See  partior,  288. 
Im-pingo.     ScQpanjo,  27o. 


'  In-cendo.     See  acccndo,  273,  III. 
I  Incesso,  ere,  Ivi,  i,  — ,  278,  2. 
I  In-cido.     See  c&do,  273,  I.  2. 
i  In-cldo.     See  caedo,  273,  I.  2. 
I  In-crepo.     See  cr^po^  260. 
I  In-cresco.     See  cresco^  277. 
i  In-cumbo.     See  accwnho,  275. 
I  In-cutio.     Sc?  qu&tio,  272,  II. 
'  Ind-igeo,  Gre,  ui,  — .     See  ^gco^  266. 

Ind-ipiscar.     See  dpiscor,  283. 

In-do.     See  abdo,  273. 

Indulgeo,  ere,  dulsi,  dultum,  269,  II. 

Ineptio,  ire,  — ,  284,  2. 

Infit,  d(f.,  297. 

Ingruo,  6re,  i,  — ,  280. 

In-notesco,  ere,  notui,  282,  II.  1. 

In-61esco.     See  HbUlcsco^  277. 

Inquam,  def.,  297. 

In-sideo.     See  sMeo,  270,  II. 

In-spicio,  ere,  spexi,  spectum,  221. 

In-sto.     See  «to,  261. 

Intel-ligo.     See  %o,  273,  II. 

Interest,  impcrs.,  301. 

Inter-nosco.     See  nosco,  278,  3. 

In-veterasco,  Sre,  rSvi,  rStum,  282. 

Irascor,  i,  — ,  283. 

Ir-ruo.    See  i-uo,  279. 


J. 


Jacio,  ere,jOci,jactum,  221 ;  273,11. 

Jubeo,  ere,  jussi,  jussum,  269,  I. 
I  Juro,  260,  2. 
j  Juvenesco,  Sre,  — ,  282,  II. 

Jiivo,  fire,  juvi,  jutum,  262. 


Labor,  i,  lapsus  sum,  283. 
LScesso,  gre,  ivi,  Itum,  278,  2. 
Licio,  obs.     See  alllcio,  272,  I.  2. 
Lacteo,  Gre,  — ,  267. 
Laedo,  6ve,  laesi,  laesum,  272,  II. 
Lambo,  ere,  i,  — ,  280. 
Langueo,  Gre,  i,  — ,  270,  III. 
LSpidat,  impers.^  300. 
Largior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 
Lateo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
LSvo,  are,  lavi,  lautum,  lotum,  lava- 
turn,  262. 
Lego,  ere,  legi,  leclumj  273,  II. 


332 


IXDEX    OF   TERES. 


LIbet,  impers.^  299. 

Llceor,  eri,  Jtus  sum,  271. 

Licet,  impers.y  299. 

Lino,  ere,  livi,  levi,  litum,  278. 

Linquo,  ere,  liqui,  — ,  273,  II. 

Liqueo,  ere,  liqui  (licui),  270,  III. 

Liquet,  impers.,  299. 

Liquor,  i,  — ,  283. 

Loquor,  i,  locutus  sum,  283. 

Lticeo,  ere,  luxi,  — ,  269,  I. 

Lucescit,  impers.y  300. 

Ludo,  ere,  lusi,  lusum,  272,  II. 

Liigeo,  ere,  luxi,  — ,  269,  I. 

Luo,  6re,  lui,  — ,  280. 


MScresco,  ore,  macrui,  — ,  282,  II.  1. 
MSdeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
MSdesco,  Sre,  mSdui,  — ,  282. 
Maereo,  ere,  — ,  267. 
Malo,  malle,  malui,  — ,  293. 
Mando,  ere,  i,  mansum,  273,  III. 
Maneo,  ere,  mansi,  mansum,  269, 1. 
Maturesco,   ere,  maturui,  — ,  282, 

IL  1. 
Medeor,  eri,  — ,  271. 
Memini,  def.,  297. 
Mentior,  iri,  Itus  sum,  288. 
Mereor,  eri,  itus  sum,  271. 
Mergo,  ere,  mersi,  mersum,  272,  II. 
Metior,  Iri,  mensus  sum,  288. 
Meto,  ere,  messui,  messum,  275,  II. 
Metuo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  280. 
Mico,  are,  ui,  — ,  260. 
Miniscor,    obs.      See    commtniscor, 

283. 
Minuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 
Misceo,  ere,  miscui,  mistum,  mix- 

tum,  268. 
Misereor,  eri,  itus  or  tus  sum,  271. 
Mis e ret,  impers.,  299. 
Mitesco,  ere,  — ,  282,  IL 
Mitto,  ere,  misi,  missum,  272,  II. 
Molior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 
Mollesco,  gre,  — ,  282,  IL 
Molo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  274. 
Moneo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  207. 
Mordeo,  ere,  momordi,  morsum,  270. 
Morior,  i  (iri),  mortuus  sum,  221 ; 

283. 
Moveo,  ere,  mOri,  motura,  270,  IL 


Mulceo,  ere,  mulsi,  mulsum,  269,  L 
Mulgeo,  €re,  mulsi,  mulsum,  269,  I, 


N. 


Nanciscor,  i,  nactus  sum,  283. 

Nascor,  i,  natus  sum,  283. 

Necto,  ere,  nexi,  nexui,  nexum,  272, 

IL  ;  275,  IL 
Neg-ligo,  ere,  lexi,  lectum.   See  %o, 

273,  IL 
Neo,  ere,  nevi,  netum,  264. 
Ne-queo,  ire,  Ivi,  itum,  296. 
Nigresco,  ere,  nigrui,  — ,  282,  II.  1. 
Ningo,  ere,  ninxi,  — ,  280. 
Niteo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Nitor,  i,  nisus,  nixus  sum,  283. 
Nolo,  nolle,  nolui,  — ,  293. 
Nosco,  ere,  novi,  notum,  278,  3. 
Nubo,  ere,  nupsi,  nuptum,  272. 
Nuo,  obs.     See  annuo,  280. 
Nupturio,  Ire,  Ivi,  — ,  284,  2. 


0. 


Ob-do.     Sec  abch,  273. 
Ob-dormisco,   ere,   dormivi,  donnl- 

tum,  282. 
Obliviscor,  i,  oblltus  sum,  283. 
Ob-mutesco,  ere,  mutui,  — ,  282,  IL  1. 
Ob-sideo.     See  sedeo,  270. 
Ob-s61esco.     See  &bdlesco,  277. 
Ob-sto.     See  sto,  261. 
Ob-surdesco,  ere,  surdui,  — ,  282. 
Ob-tineo.     See  teneo,  268. 
Oc-cido.     See  cMo,  273,  I.  2. 
Oc-cldo.     See  caedo,  273,  I.  2. 
Oc-cino.     See  cano,  273. 
Oc-cipio.     See  capio,  273,  IL 
Occiilo,  ere,  ui,  tum,  274. 
Odi,  def.,  297. 

Of-fendo.     See  defcndo,  273,  IIL 
Oleo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Oleseo,  obsolete.     See  Sbolesco,  277. 
Operio,  Ire,  ui,  tum,  285. 
Oportet,  impers.,  299. 
Op-perior,  iri,  pertus,  perltus  sum, 

288. 
Ordior,  Iri,  orsus  sum,  288. 
Os-tendo.     See  fendo,  273,  I.  2. 
Ovat,  drf.,  297. 


INDEX    OF   VERBS. 


P. 


PSciscor,  i,  pactus  sum,  283. 

Paenltet,  impers.,  299. 

Palleo,  Cre,  ui,  — ,  266. 

Pando,  ere,  i,  pansum,  passura,  273, 

III. 
Pango,  ere,  peplgi,  pactum,  273. 
Pango,  ere,  panxi,  pegi,  panctum, 

pactum,  273. 
Parco,  ere,  peperci  (parsi),  parsum, 

273,  I.  2. 
Pareo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  265. 
Pario,  ere,  peperi,  partum,  221 ;  273. 
Partior,  Iri,  itus  sum,  288. 
Parturio,  Ire,  Ivi,  — ,  284,  2. 
Pasco,  Sre,  pSvi,  pastum,  276. 
Pateo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Potior,  i,  passus  sum,  229 ;  221 ;  283. 
Pavco,  ure,  pavi,  — ,  270,  II. 
Pecto,  8re,  xi,  xum,  272,  II. 
Pel-Ucio,    ere,    lexi,   lectum,   221 ; 

272,  I.  2. 
Pello,  5re,  pepiili,  pulsum,  273,  I.  2. 
Pendeo,  ere,  pependi,  pensum,  270. 
Pendo,  ere,  pSpendi,  pensum,  273, 

I.  2. 
Per-cello.     See  excelh,  274. 
Per-censeo.     See  censeo,  268. 
Pcr-do,  5re,  didi,  ditum.     See  abdo, 

273. 
Pergo  {for  per-rigo),  ere,  perrexi, 

perrectum.     See  r^go,  272. 
Per-pgtior,     Seep&tior,  283. 
Per-sto.     See  sfo,  261. 
Per-tlneo.     See  t^neo,  268. 
Pessum-do.     See  do,  261. 
Peto,  Sre,  Ivi,  itum,  278,  2. 
Piget,  impcrs.,  299. 
Pingo,  ere,  pinxi,  pictum,  272,  I, 
Pinso   (piso),    ere,  i,  ui,   pinsitum, 

pistum,  pinsum,  273,  III. 
Plaudo,  ere,  si,  sum,  272,  II. 
Plecto,  ere,  xi,  xum,  272,  II. 
Plector,  not  u^ed  as  Dep.    See  am- 

pkdor,  283. 
Pleo,  obsolete.     See  compleo,  264. 
Pllco,  fire,  avi,  ui.  Stum,  Itum,  260. 
Pluo,  ere,  i  or  vi,  — ,  280. 
PoUeo,  6re,  — ,  267. 
Polllceor,  eri,  ttus  sum,  271. 
Pono,  ere,  p6sui,  pSsItum,  275. 
Posco,  ore,  pfiposci,  — ,  273,  I.  2. 


!  Pos-sMeo.     See  sMeo,  270,  II. 
Possum,  posse,  potui,  — ,  290. 
Potior,  Iri,  Itus  sum,  288. 
POto,  are,  avi,  fitum,  um,  260, 1  and  2. 
Prae-clno.     See  cUno,  273. 
Prae-curro.     See  curro,  273,  I.  2. 
Prae-sldeo.     See  skleo,  270,  II. 
Prae-sto.     See  sto,  261. 
Prae-vertor.     See  vcrto,  273,  III. 
Prandeo,  ere,  i,  pransum,  270,  III. 
Prehendo,  ere,  i,  hensum,  273,  III. 
Premo,  ere,  pressi,  pressum,  272,  II. 
Prod-igo.     See  «^o,  273,  II. 
Pro-do.     See  abdo,  273. 
Prof  Iciscor,  i,  profectus  sum,  283. 
Pro-fiteor.     Seef&teor,  271. 
Promo,    ere,    prompsi,   promptum, 

272,  I. 
Pro-sum,  prOdesse,  profui,  — ,  290, 

III. 
Pro-tendo.     See  te^ido,  273,  I.  2. 
Psallo,  ere,  i,  — ,  280. 
Piidet,  impers.,  299. 
Puerasco,  ere,  — ,  282,  II. 
Pungo,  ere,  pupiigi,  punctum,  273. 


Quaero,   ere,   quaeslvi,   quaeeltum, 

278,  2. 
Quaeso,  def.,  297. 
Quitio,  5re,  quassi,  qu€issum,  221 ; 

272,  II. 
Queo,  ire,  Ivi,  Itum,  296. 
Queror,  i,  questus  sum,  283. 
Quiesco,  ere,  quievi,  quietum,  277. 


Rado,  ere,  rllsi,  rSsum,  272,  II, 
Ripio,  ere,  rSpul,  raptum,  221 ;  275. 
Raucio,  Ire,  rausi,  rausum,  286,  II. 
R<5-censeo.     See  censeo,  268. 
R5-cIdo.     See  dido,  273,  I.  2. 
RS-cIdo.     See  caedo,  273,  I.  2. 
Re-crudesco,  ere,  crudui,  282,  II.  1. 
Red-arguo.     See  arguo,  279. 
Red-do.     See  abdo,  273. 
Re-fello.     See  f alio,  273,  I.  2. 
Re-fero.    See/^ro,  292. 
Refert,  imp^rs.,  301. 
R'jgo,  ere,  rcxi,  rectum,  209 ;  272. 


334 


INDEX    OF   VERBS. 


Re-linquo.     See  Ihujico,  273,  11. 
Reminiscor^  i,  — ,  283. 
Renldeo,  5re,  — ,  267. 
Reor,  r6ri,  ratus  sum,  271. 
Re-pango.     See  pango,  273. 
Re-parco.     Seeparco,  273,  I.  2. 
Re-perio,  Ire,  peri,  pertum,  287. 
Rc-sideo.     See  s(^deo,  270,  11. 
Re-sipio.     See  sapio,  278. 
Re-s6no.     See  s5n,o^  260. 
Re-spergo.     See  spargo,  272,  II. 
Re-tendo.     See  tendo,  273,  I.  2. 
Re-tinco.     See  ieneo,  268, 
Re-vertor.     See  verto,  273,  III. 
Re-vivisco,  ere,  vixi,  victum,  28?. 
Rideo,  ere,  risi,  rlsum,  269,  I. 
Ringor,  i,  — ,  283. 
Rodo,  ere,  rOsi,  rosum,  272,  II. 
Rorat,  impcrs.,  300. 
Rdbeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Rudo,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278,  2, 
Rumpo,  ere,  rupi,  ruptum,  273,  II. 
Ruo,  ere,  rui,  ratum,  ruiturus,  279. 


S. 


Saglo,  ire,  — ,  284,  2. 

Salio,  ire,  ui  (ii),  turn,  285. 

Salve,  d(f.,  297. 

Sancio,  ire,  sanxi,  sancltum,  s&nc- 

tum,  286. 
Sapio,  ere,  ivi,  ui,  — ,  221 ;  278. 
Sarcio,  ire,  sarsi,  sartum,  286. 
SSt-ago.     See  ago,  273,  II. 
ScSbo,  ere,  scabi,  — ,  273,  II. 
Scando,  ere,  di,  sum,  273,  IIL 
Scindo,  ere,  scidi,  scissum,  273.  III. 
Scisco,  ere,  selvi,  scitum,  282. 
S3co,  are,  ui,  turn,  260. 
Sedeo,  ere,  sedi,  seasum,  270,  II. 
Se-ligo.     See  lego,  273,  II. 
Sentio,  Ire,  sensi,  sensum,  286. 
Sep  alio,  ire,  ivi,  sepultura,  284. 
Sepio,  ire,  psi,  ptum,  286. 
Sequor,  i,  secutus  sum,  228. 
Sero,  ere,  sevi,  satum,  276. 
Soro,  ere,  serui,  sertum,  274. 
Sido,  ere,  i,  — ,  280. 
Sileo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Sino,  ere,  sivi,  situm,  278. 
Sisto,  ere,  stiti,  stStum,  273. 
Sitio,  ire,  ivi,  — ,  284. 


Soleo,  ere,  solitus  sum,  271. 
Solvo,  ere,  solvi,  solutum,  273,  III. 
Suno,  are,  ui,  itum,  260. 
Sorbeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Sortior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 
Spargo,  ere,  sparsi,  sparsum,  272,  IL 
Specio,  obs.    See  aspicio,  272. 
Spemo,  ere,  sprevi,  spretum,  277. 
Splendeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Spondeo,   ere,  spopondi,  sponsum, 

270. 
Squaieo,  ere,  — ,  267. 
Statuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 
Sterno,  ere,  stravi,  stratum,  276. 
Sternuo,ere,  i,  — ,  280. 
Sterto,  ere,  ui,  — ,  275. 
Stinguo,  ere,  — ,  281. 
Sto,  are,  steti,  statum,  261. 
Strepo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  275. 
Strldeo,  ere,  stridi,  — ,  270,  III. 
Strldo,  ere,  i,  — ,  280. 
Struo,  ere,  struxi,  structum,  279,  1. 
Studeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Stiipeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Suadeo,  ere,  si,  sum,  269,  I. 
Sub-do,  ere,  dtdi,  ditum.     See  abdoy 

273,  I.  1. 
Sub-igo.     See  ago,  273,  II. 
Sub-silio.     See  salio,  285. 
Suc-cedo.     See  cedo,  272,  II. 
Suc-cendo.     See  accendo,  273,  IIL 
Suc-censeo.     See  censeo,  268. 
Suc-cido.     See  cado,  273,  I.  2. 
Suc-cido.     See  caedo,  273,  I.  2. 
Suc-cresco.     See  cresco,  277. 
Suesco,  ere,  suevi,  suetum,  277. 
I  Suf-fero.     See/ero,  292. 
i  Suf-fJcio.     See/aao,  273,  II. 
Suf-fodio.     Seefodio,  273,  U. 
Sug-gero.     See  gero,  272. 
Sura,  esse,  fui,  — ,  204. 
Sumo,  ere,  psi,  ptum,  272. 
Superbio,  ire,  — ,  284,  2. 
Sup-pono.     Seejowio,  275, 1. 
Surgo  (for  sur-rigo),   ere,  surr^^i- 

surrectum.     See  r^go,  272,  I. 


T. 

Taedet,  impers.,  299. 

Tango,  ere,  tetigi,  tat-tum,  273. 

Temno,  ere,  — ,  281. 


INDEX    OF    VERBS. 


335 


Tendo,  gre,  tetendi,  tentum,  tensum, 

273,  I.  2, 
Teiieo,  6re,  ui,  turn,  268. 
Tepesco,  ore,  tepui,  — ,  282. 
Tergeo,  ere,  tersi,  tersum,  269,  I. 
Tergo,  ^re,  tersi,  tersum,  272,  IL 
Tero,  ere,  trivi,  tritura,  278. 
Texo,  ere,  ui,  turn,  275. 
Timeo,  ere,  ui,  — .  266. 
Tollo,  ere,  sustuli,  sublatum,  273. 
Tondeo,  ere,  totondi,  tonsura,  270. 
Tono,  are,  ui,(itum),  260. 
Torpeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Torqueo,  ere,  torsi,  tortum,  269,  II. 
Torreo,  ere,  torrui,  tostum,  268. 
Tra-do.     See  abdo,  273. 
Traho,  ere,  traxi,  tractum,  272. 
Tremo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  274. 
Tribuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279, 
Trudo,  ere,  trusi,  trusum,  272,  II. 
Tueor,  eri,  tultus  sum,  271. 
Tundo,  Src,  tutudi,  tunsum,  tusum, 

273, 1.  2. 
Tuor,  for  tueor,  283. 
Turgeo,  ere,  tursi  {rare\  — ,  269. 
Tussio,  ire,  — ,  284,  2. 


Ulciscor,  i,  ultus  sum,  283. 
Urgeo,  ere,  ursi,  — ,  269,  I. 
Uro,  6re,  ussi,  ustum,  272. 
Utor,  i,  usus  sum,  283. 


V. 


Vado,  gre,  — ,  281. 
Vagio,  Ire,  ivi,  — ,  284. 
Velio,  ere,  vexi,  vectum,  272. 
Velio,  ere,  velli  (vulsi),  vulsum,  273, 

Vendo,  ere,  dldi,  dltum,  273. 
Ven-eo.     See  co,  295. 
Venio,  Ire,  veni,  ventum,  287. 
Venum-do.     See  rfo,  261, 
Vereor,  eri,  verttus  sum,  227 ;  271. 
Vergo,  ere,  — ,  281, 
Verro,  ere,  verri,  versum,  273,  III. 
Verto,  6re,  ti,  sum,  273,  III, 
Vertor.     See  devcrtor,  273,  III, 
Vescor,  i,  — ,  283. 
Vesperascit,  vnpcrs.,  300, 
Vgterasco,  Sre,  ravi,  — ,  276. 
Veto,  are,  ui,  itum,  260. 
Video,  ere,  vidi,  visum,  270,  II. 
Vieo,  ere,  — ,  etum,  264,  2, 
Vilesco,  ere,  vilui,  — ,  282,  II,  1. 
Vincio,  ire,  vinxi,  vinctum,  286. 
Vinco,  ere,  vici,  victum,  273,  II. 
Vireo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Viresco,  ere,  virui,  — ,  282. 
Viso,  ere,  i,  um,  273,  III, 
Vivo,  ere,  vixi,  victum,  272, 
Volo,  velle,  vului,  — ,  293. 
Volvo,  ere,  volvi,  volutum,  273,  IIL 
V6mo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  274, 
Voveo,  ere,  vOvi,  vOtum,  270,  II. 


IKDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


Note. — The  numbers  refer  to  articles,  not  to  pages.  Constr.  =  construction ;  ro. 
=  with;  if.  =  and  the  following;  com^jcfs.  =  compounds ;  geti.  or  greju^.  =  genitive ; 
gend.  =  gender;  ace.  or  accus.  =  accusative;  aces.  =  accusatives ;  loc.  or locat.  =  loca- 
tive ;  adjs.  =  adjectives ;  pt'eps.  =  prepositions,  etc. 

It  has  not  been  thought  advisable  to  overload  this  index  with  such  separate 
words  as  may  be  readily  referred  to  classes,  or  to  general  rules,  or  even  with  such  ex- 
ceptions as  may  be  readily  found  under  their  respective  heads.  Accordingly,  the  nu- 
merous exceptions  in  Dec.  III.,  and  in  gender,  are  not  inserted,  as  they  may  be  best 
found  under  the  respective  endings,  55-115. 


A  SOUND  of,  6  ff.,  15.  Nouns 
5  in  a,— of  1st  dec,  48 ;  of  3d 
dec,  55 ;  genitive  of,  69 ;  gen- 
der, .111;  derivatives  in  a,  320, 
6.  .^,  in  ace  sing.,  68  ;  changed 
in  compds.,  341,  3.  A,  quantity 
of, — final,  615;  in  increments  of 
dec,  633  ;  of  conj.,  640. 

A,  ah,  abs,  in  compds.,  338,  2;  in 
compds.,  w.  dat.,  386,  2.  A,  ab, 
abs,  TV.  abl.,  431,  of  agent,  383, 
in  personification,  414,  6. 

Abbreviations,  719. 

Abhinc,  427. 

Ablative,  formation  of, — in  1st  dec, 
48,  49;  in  21  dec  51,  52;  in  3d 
dec  57  fif.,  62  ff.;  in  4th  dec, 
117;  in  adjs.,  148  ff. 

Ablative,  syntax  of,  412-437.  Of 
cause,  manner,  means,  414  ; 
agent,  accompaniment,  414,  5 
and  7.  Of  price,  416.  W.  com- 
paratives, 417.  Of  diff'er.,  418. 
In  special  constrs.,  419;  385,  5; 
386,  2;  434,  2;  414,  2.  Of 
place,  420  ff.  Of  source,  425. 
Of  time,  426.  Of  charac,  428. 
Of  specification,  429.  Abl.  ab- 
sol,  431 ;  w.  quisque,  431,  6. 
W.  preps.,  432  If.  Of  gerunds, 
etc.,  566.     Of  supine,  570. 

Absolute,  ablative,  430  ff. ;  infini- 
tive or  clause,  431,  4. 

Absque,  w.  abl.,  434. 

Abstineoy  vf.  ace  and  abl.,  425,  2; 
w.  gen.,  409,  4. 


Abstract  nouns,  39 ;  from  adjs., 
319  ;  from  verbs,  321,  3. 

Abunde,  w.  gen.,  896,  III.  4). 

-abus,  for  w,  in  1st  dec,  49. 

Ac,  for  quam,  417,  4.  Ac  si,  w. 
subj.,  503,  506. 

Acatalectic  verse,  663,  III.  1. 

Accedit,  constr.,  556,  II.  1. 

Accentuation,  24  ff 

Accid'U,  constr.,  556,  II. 

Accingo,  constr.,  374,  7. 

Accompaniment,  abl.  of,  414,  7. 

Accomplishing,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
558,  IV. 

Accusative,  formation  of, — in  3d 
dec,  57  ff.  ;  in  adjectives,  148  ff. 

Accusative,  syntax  of,  370-381. — ^ 
Direct  object,  371  ff. ;  cognate, 
371,  1,  3);  w.  other  cases,  371, 
2  ;  w.  compds.,  371,  4  ;  w.  verbal 
adjs.  and  nouns,  371,  7.  Two 
aces.,  373  ff. ;  other  constrs.  for, 
374,  3;  infin.  or  clause,  374,  4; 
poetic  ace,  374,  7.  Subj.  of  in- 
tin.,  375.  Agreement,  376.  Ad- 
verbial ace,  377  ff.  Ace  of  time 
and  space,  378.  Of  limit,  379, 
poetic  dat.  for,  379,  5.  Of  speci- 
fication, 380.  In  exclam.,  381. 
W.  preps.,  432  ff.  Of  gerunds 
and  gerundives,  565.  Of  supine, 
569. 

Accusing  and  acquitting,  constr.  of 
verbs  of,  410. 

Acephalous  verse,  663,  III. 

-aceus,  adjs.  in,  324. 


INDEX    OF   SUBJECTS. 


33: 


Acquiesco,  386,  2. 

Active  voice,  195.  Act.  and  pass. 
constr.,  465. 

Ad,  in  compds.,  338,  2 ;  in  compds. 
w.  two  acc3.,  374,  6 ;  w.  dat., 
388.     Ad,  w.  ace,  433. 

-ades,  in  patronymics,  316;  quan- 
tity, 646,  1. 

Adhuc  locoruni,  396,  2,  4)  (4). 

Adipiscor,  w.  gen.,  409,  3. 

Adjective,— Decl.  of,  147  if.  Com- 
parison, 160  ff.  Numerals,  172 
ff. ;  decl.  of,  175  If.  Derivation, 
322  ff.  Comp.,  340.  W.  dat., 
391.  W.  gen.  396,  III.  2;  399. 
W.  abl.,  414,  419.  Agreement, 
438  ff.  W.  the  force  of  nouns, 
clauses,  adverbs,  441  ff.  Use  of 
comparison,  444. 

Admisceo,  w.  dat.,  385,  5. 

AdmSnco,  constr.,  410,  3. 

Admonishing,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
410. 

Adolcsccns,  compared,  168,  4. 

Adonic  verse,  677,  III. 

Adulor,  w.  ace.  or  dat.,  385,  3. 

Advantage,  dat.  of,  385. 

Adverbial  ace,  377. 

Adverbs, — Numeral,  181.  Classes 
of,  304.  Compar.,  305.  Deriva- 
tion, 333  ff.  Composition,  342. 
For  adjs.,  352,  3.  W.  dat.,  392. 
W.  gen.,  396,  III.  4).  As  preps., 
437.  Use,  582;  w.  nouns,  583. 
Negatives,  non,  nc,  Jiaud,  684, 
two  negatives,  585. 

Adversative  conjs.,  310;  587,  III. 

Adversative  sentence,  360. 

Adversiis,  w.  accus.,  433. 

Advising,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  558,  VI. 

Ae,  sound  of,  9,  16;  changed  to  i, 
341,  3. 

Aedes,  sing,  and  plur.,  132. 

Aeger,  w.  gen.,  399,  3. 

Aemulus,  w.  gen.  or  dat.,  399,  2,  2). 

Aeneas,  decl.  of,  50. 

Aequi  boni  facei'e,  402,  3. 

A'er,  aether,  ace.  of,  93,  1,  quantity 
of,  621,  3. 

•aeus,  adjs.  in,  326. 

Affatim,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 

Afflcio,  w.  abl.  414,  1,  1). 

Affinvi,  w.  gen.,  399,  (3). 

Age,  expression  of,  4 1 7,  3. 


Agent,— Abl.  of,  w.  a  or  ab,  388,  2 ; 
Dat.  of,  388. 

Agreement, — Of  Pred.  Noun,  862; 
in  gend.  and  numb.,  362,  1.  Of 
Appositive,  363,  in  gend.  and 
numb.,  363,  1.  Of  Adject.,  438  ; 
w.  clause,  438,  3  ;  constr.  accord, 
to  sense,  438,  6 ;  w.  pred.  noun 
or  appositive,  438,  7 ;  w.  two 
nouns,  439 ;  439,  2 ;  w.  part, 
gen.  396,  2,  3).  Of  Pronouns, 
445  ;  w.  two  antecedents,  445,  3  ; 
w.  pred.  noun  or  appositive,  445, 
4 ;  constr.  accord,  to  sense,  445, 
5;  w.  clause,  445,  7.  Of  Verb, 
460;  constr.  accord,  to  sense, 
461  ;  agreement  w.  Appos.  or 
Pred.  noun,  462 ;  w.  comp.  sub- 
ject, 463. 

-ai,  for  ae,  49,  2 ;  quant,  of,  612,  1. 

-al,  nouns  in,  63. 

Alcaic  verse,  664  ;  691,  II. ;  greater, 
692  ;  stanza,  700,  I. 

Alieno,  w.  dat.  425,  2. 

Alicnus,  w.  dat.,  391,  1 ;  w.  abl.,. 
391,  2,  3);  w.  gen.,  399,  3. 

Aliquantus,  aliquls,  aliquot,  191  ; 
use  of  aliqnis,  455. 

-alls,  adjs.  in,  325. 

Alius,— \)Qc\.  151.  W.  abl.,  417, 
5 ;  w.  atone,  ac,  or  et,  459,  2. 
Aliits — afins,  459  ;  alius — alium^ 
w.  plur.  verb,  461,  3. 

Alphabet,  2  ff. 

Alter,— DqcX.  151.  Indef.,  191,  2; 
alter uter,  151,  4;  alter — alter ^ 
459  ;  alter — alterum,  tt.  plur. 
verb,  461,  3. 

AUercor,  w.  dat.,  385,  5. 

Alms,  gender  of,  53. 

Amhi,  amb.,  338,  3. 

Ambo,  decl.  of,  175,  2. 

Amphora,  716. 

Amplius  without  quarn,  417,  3. 

An,  annon,  346,  II.  2 ;  526,  2,  2). 

An=aut,  626,  2,  3). 

Anacoluthon,  704,  III.  4. 

Analysis  of  verbal  endings,  241  ff. 
—  Tense-signs,  242  ff. ;  mood- 
signs,  244  ff. ;  personal  endings, 
247. 

Anapaestic  verse,  678. 

Anaphora,  704,  II.  3. 

Anastrophc,  704,  IV.  1. 


338 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


Animi,  constr.,  399,  3,  4). 

Answers,  346,  3. 

Ante,  in  compds.,  338,  2 ;  w.  dat., 
386.  Ante,  in  expressions  of 
time,  427  ;  w.  ace.,  433. 

Antecedent,  use  of  term,  445,  1 ; 
omitted,  445,  6 ;  attracted,  445, 
9.     Clause  as  antecedent,  445,  7. 

Antequam,  w.  indie,  or  subj.,  523. 

Antimeria,  704,  III.  1. 

Antithesis,  703,  8. 

-anus,  adjs.  in,  325  flf. 

Anxiics,  w.  gen.,  399,  3. 

Aphaeresis,  703,  1. 

Apocope,  703,  3. 

Aposiopesis,  704,  I.  3. 

Appendix,  702-720. 

Appositive, — Agreement  of,  363  ;  in 
gend,  and  numb.,  363,  1.  Subject 
omitted,  363,  2.     Force  of,  363,  3. 

Aptus,  w.  dat.,  391,  1 ;  apim  qui, 
w.  subj.,  501,  III. 

Apud,  w.  accus.,  433. 

-ar,  nouns  in,  63. 

Arceo,  w.  dat.,  385,  4. 

Archilochian  verse,  664 ;  677,  II. ; 
greater,  69],  I. 

Arenae,  locat.  of  place,  424,  3. 

-aris,  adjs.  in,  325. 

Aristophanic,  691,  III. 

-arium,  nouns  in,  317. 

-ariuSj  nouns  in,  318  ;  adjs.  in,  325. 

Arrangement,— Of  Words,  592-602, 
—General  rules,  593  ff.  Effect 
of  emphasis  and  euphony,  594. 
Contrasted  groups,  595.  Kin- 
dred words,  596.  Words  with 
common  relation,  597.  Special 
rules,  598  ff.  Modifiers  of  nouns, 
698  ;  of  adjs.,  599  ;  of  verbs, 
600 ;  of  adverbs,  601 ;  of  special 
words, — Demon,  Prep.  Conjunct. 
Rel.  Non,  602.  Of  Clauses,  603- 
606, — Clause  as  Subj.  or  Pred., 
603;  as  Subord.  element,  604; 
in  Latin  Period,  605 ;  in  compd. 
sentence,  606. 

Arsis  and  Thesis,  660. 

As  and  its  divisions,  712. 

-as,  nouns  in,  1st  dec,  50;  3d  dec, 
79 ;  gend.  of,  105. 

-as,  for  ae  in  gen.,  49  ;  in  Greek  ace. 
plur.,  68  ;  in  patronymics,  316 ; 
in  adjs.,  326 ;  quantity  of,  623. 


Asclepiadean  verse,  689,  III. ;  great- 
er, IV. 

-asco,  inceptives  in,  C32,  II. 

Asking,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  374  ; 
558,  VI. 

Aspergo,  constr.,  384,  1. 

Aspirated  letters,  4,  3. 

-asso,  assim,  in  fut.  perf.  and  perf. 
subj.,  239,  4. 

Assuesco,  w.  abl.  386,  2. 

Asyndeton,  704,  I.  1. 

-atim,  adverbs  in,  334,  2. 

Atque,  for  quam,  417,  4. 

Attraction,  of  pronoun,  445,  4 ;  of 
antecedent,  445,  9  ;  of  pred.  noun 
or  adj.  after  an  infin  ,  547.  Subj. 
by  attraction,  527. 

Attributive  adj.,  438,  2. 

-atus,  nouns  in,  318;  adjs.  in,  323. 

Ate,  9,  16;  changed,  341,  3. 

Audio,  w.  Pred.  Noun,  362,  2,  (1). 

Audietis,  w.  two  datives,  390,  3. 

Aureus,  the  coin,  712. 

Autem,  place  of,  602,  III. 

Authority,  long  or  short  by,  609,  2. 

Authors,' Latin,  706. 

Avidm,  \\.  gen.,  399,  2 ;  w.  dat., 
399,  5  ;  w.  ace.  and  prep.,  399,  5. 

-ax,  genit.  of  nouns  in,  92  ;  verbals 
in,  328  ;  w.  gen  ,  399,  2. 

B    CHANGED  to  J9,  258. 
J     Being  angrv,  verbs  of,  w.  dat., 
385. 
Being  distant,  constr,  of  verbs  of, 

556,  m. 

Believing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 

Belli,  constr,,  424,  2. 

Bene,  compared,  305,  2 ;    w.  verbs 

of  buying,  416,  3. 
Benefiting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 
Bibi,  quantity  of,  651,  2. 
-bills,  verbals  in,  328. 
Bonus,  decl.,   148  ;    compar.,   165 ; 

honi  consulo,  402,  3. 
Bos,  decl.  of,  66. 
Brachycatalectic,  663,  IIL 
Brazen  age,  706,  III. 
-brum,  nouns  in,  320. 
-bs,  genit.  of  nouns  in,  86. 
Bucolic  caesura,  673,  2. 
-bulum,  nouns  in,  320. 
-bundus,  verbals  in,  328 ;  w,  ace. 

371,  7. 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


339 


c 


SOUXD  of,  17  fF. 
J     74;  gend.,  111. 


C,  quantity  of  final  syllables  in,  621. 

Caelum,  plur.  caeli,  143,  1. 

Caesura,  caesural  pause,  662 ;  in 
hcxam.,  673  if. ;  in  anapaestic 
verse,  678  ;  in  trochaic,  680 ;  in 
iambic,  683,  IV. ;  686. 

Calendar,  Ronviu,  707. 

Calends,  708,  I.  1. 

Calling,  verbs  of,  w.  tvr-o  aces.,  373. 

Caput,  deel.  of,  58;  w.  verbs  of 
condemning,  410,  5. 

Carbastcs,  gend.  of,  53. 

Cardinals,  172, 174  ;  decl.  of,  175  ff. 

Cases,  etymology  of, — Endings  of, 
46,  1 ;  'in  1st  dec,  48;  in  2d  dec, 
51,  2  ;  in  3d  dec,  57  If.  ;  in  4th 
dec,  116;  in  5th  dec,  120;  gen- 
eral endings,  122.  Greek  cases, 
60,  54, 68.  Cases  of  adjs.,  151-158, 

fyases,  syntax  of,  364-435, — charac- 
terized, 364  ;  kindred,  365  ;  uom., 
364  flf. ;  voc,  369  ;  accus.,  370- 
381  ;  dat.,  382-392 ;  gen.,  393- 
411;  abl.,  412-431;  w.  preposi- 
tions, 432-437. 

Catalectic  verse,  663,  III.  1. 

Causa,  gratia,  414,  2,  3). 

Causal  conjunctions,  310,  311 ;  587, 
V. ;  588,  VII. 

Causal  sentences,  360. 

Cause,  abl.  of,  414. 

Cause,  Subj.  of,  517-523, — Rule, 
617,  521;  w.  quum,  518;  qui, 
519  ;  qfiod,  quia,  quoniam,  qaa?i' 
do,  520 ;  dwn,  donee,  quoad,  522  ; 
antequain,  priusquam,  523. 

Cause,  denoted  by  part.,  578,  II. 

Causing,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  558,  IV. 

Cave,  w.  subj.  for  imperat.,  635,  I. 

Caveo,  constr.,  385,  3. 

-C8,  in  pronouns,  186. 

Cdo,  constr.,  374,  2  and  3. 

-cen,  compounds  in,  339,  2. 

Certo,  w.  dat.,  385,  5. 

Certus,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

Ch,  4,  3;  sound  of,  11,  1. 

Changes,  euphonic,  26  ff.  ;  in  vow- 
els, 27  ff. ;  in  consonants,  33  ff. ; 
in  stems,  258. 

Characteristic,  gen.  of,  396,  IV. ; 
abl.  of,  428  ;  gen.  and  abl.  distin- 
guished, 428,  4. 


Choliambus,  683,  4. 

Choosing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  373. 

Choriambic  verse,  689  ff. 

Cingo,  constr.  of,  374,  7. 

-cio,  derivatives  in,  315,  5. 

Circa,  circiter,  w.  ace,  433. 

Circum,  in  compds.,  338,  2 ; 
compds.,  w.  ace,  371,  4;  w.  two 
aces.,  374,  6.  Circicrado,  circum- 
fundo,  constr  ,  384,  1.  Circum^ 
w.  ace,  433. 

Cis,  citra,  w.  ace,  433. 

Citerior,  compared,  166. 

Citum,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

CYam,  w.  ace  or  abl.,  437,  3. 

Clauses,  as  nouns,  gender  of,  42. 
Priu.  and  sub.  clauses,  345, 1  and 
2.  Clause  as  object,  371,  5;  as 
abl.  absol.,  431,.  4;  as  antece- 
dent, 445,  7.  Indirect  questions, 
clauses  w.  infin.,  subj.,  and  w. 
quod,  compared,  554.  Arrange- 
ment of,  603  ff. 

Cognate  accus.,  371,  1. 

Coins,  Roman,  712. 

-cola,  compounds  in,  339,  2. 

Collective  nouns,  39. 

Coins,  gender  of,  53. 

Com,  ccn  for  cum,  in  compds.,  338, 
2 ;  w.  dat.,  386. 

Combined  objects,  354,  3. 

Comitor,  w.  ace  or  dat.,  385,  3. 

Command,  subj.  of,  487  ff.  Constr. 
of  verbs  of,  385  ;  558,  VI. 

Common  nouns,  39  ;  com.  quantitv, 
23. 

Commoneo,  commonefacio,  constr., 
410,  3. 

Communis,  constr.,  391,  2,4);  399, 
3. 

Commuto,  constr.  of,  416,  2. 

Comparative  conjs.,  311;  588,  II. 

Comparative  degree,  160  ;  wanting, 
167 ;  formed  by  magis,  170.  Com- 
paratives w.  gen.,  396,  2,  3)  (2) ; 
w.  abl.,  417;  w,  quam,  417,  1; 
w.  force  of  too,  444,  i  ;  before 
and  after  quam,  444,  2 ;  w.  quam 
and  the  subj.,  501,  IV. 

Comparative  view,  of  decl.,  123  ;  of 
conjugation,  240  ff. 

Comparison, — of  adjs.,  160;  modes 
of,  161;  terminational,  162  ff. ; 
in-cg.,    163  ff. ;  defect.,   166  ff. ; 


340 


INDEX    OF   SUBJECTS. 


adverbial,  170.     Use  of,  444  ;  in 
adverbs,  444,  4. 

Compleo,  constr.,  410,  '7. 

Complex  sentences,  345,  857; 
abridged,  358  ff.  Comp.  ele- 
ments, 350;  subject,  352;  predi- 
cate, 354. 

Compos,  157,  2;  w.  gen.  or  abl., 
899,  (3);  419,  III. 

Composition  of  words,  813,  338  ff. 

Compound  nouns, — decl.  of,  125  fF, ; 
composition  of,  339  ;  comp.  ad- 
jectives, 340  ;  verbs,  341 ;  prin. 
parts  of,  214;  comp.  adverbs, 
342.  Comp.  sentences,  345,  360 ; 
abridged,  361.  Com.  subject, 
predicate,  modifier,  361,  1-3. 
Compounds  of  preps,  w.  ace, 
371,  4;  w.  two  aces.,  374,  6. 

Computation  of  money,  713. 

Con,  see  com. 

Concealing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces., 
374. 

Concedo,  constr.,  551,  II.  2. 

Concession,  subj.  of,  514  flf. ;  parti- 
ciple, 578,  IV. 

Concessive  conjunctions,  311  ;  588 
IV. 

Condemning,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
410,  5. 

Condition, — conjunctions  of,  311, 
588.  Subj.  of,  502;  force  of 
tenses,  504 ;  w.  dum,  modo,  dum- 
modo,  505  ;  ac  si,  ut  si,  etc.,  506 ; 
si,  nisi,  etc.,  507  ff. ;  si  omitted, 
503,  1 ;  condition  supplied,  503, 
2 ;  first  form,  508  ;  second,  509  ; 
third,  510;  mixed  forms,  511, 
612.  Condition  in  relative 
clauses,  513  ;  in  oratio  obliqua, 
532,  2  and  3  ;  denoted  by  parti- 
ciple, 578,  III. 

Conditional  sentences,  502  ff. 

Confldo,  w.  dat.,  385, 1 ;  w.  abl,  419.  ; 

Conjugation,  200  ff. ;  of  sum,  204.  ' 
First  conj.,  205  ff.,  259  ff. ;  sec-  \ 
ond,  207  if.,  264  ff. ;  third,  209  ff.,  ' 
272  ff.;  fourth,  211  ff.,  284  ff. ;  ! 
of  verbs  in  io  of  the  3d  conj.,  221.  I 
Periphrastic,  231  ff.  Contrac-  { 
tions  and  peculiarities,  234  ff.  • 
Comparative  view  of  conj.,  240.  | 
Conj.  of  irreg.  verbs,  289  ff. ;  of  | 
defect.,  297;  of  impersonal,  298  ff. 


Conjunctions,  303  ;  coordinate,  use 

of,  587  ;  subordinate,  use  of,  588. 

Place  of.  in  sentence,  602,  III. 
Conscius,  w.  gen.,  399,(2);  w.  abl., 

399,  5  ;  w.  gen.  and  dat.,  399,  6. 
Conscius  mihi  sum,  consti'.,  551,  3. 
Consecutive  conjunctions,  311,  588. 
Consonants,   3,   I.  ;    double,  4,    2 ; 

sounds  of,   10  ff.,  17.     Changes 

in,  33  ff. 
Consors,  w.  gen.,  399  (3). 
Constituo,  constr.,  558,  II. 
Consuesco,  w.  abl.,  386,  2. 
Coitsuehido,   consfuetudinis  est,  con- 
str., 558,  I.  1. 
Consulo,  const.,  385,  3. 
Consult  us,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 
Contentus,  w.  abl.,  419,  IV. 
Continental  pronunciation,  19. 
Contingit,  constr.,  556,  II. 
Contra,  w.  accus.,  433. 
Contracted   syllables,   quantity   of, 

610. 
Contractions,  in  conj.,  234  ff. 
Contrarius,  constr.,  391,  2,  4). 
Convicting,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  410. 
Coordinate  conjunctions,  309. 
Copulative  conjunctions,  310,  587. 

Copul.  sentences,  360. 
Coram,  w.  abl.,  434. 
Countries,  gender  of  names  of,  42. 
-cram,  nouns  in,  320. 
Cuicuimodi,  187,  6. 
C^ijas,  185,  3. 
Cujus,   185,   3 ;    cujusmodi,   cujus- 

cumquemodi,  187,  6. 
-culum,  nouns  in,  320. 
-cuius,    cula,   culum,   nouns    in, 

315  ;  adjs.  in,  327. 
Cum,  appended,   184,  9;    187,   3; 

cum,    com,   in   compds.,    338,  2. 

Cum,  w.  abl.,  434. 
-cundus,  verbals  in,  328. 
Cuncti,  omnes,  w.  gen.,  396,  III,  2, 

3). 
Cupidus,  w.  gen.,  399,  2. 
Cupiens,  idiomatic  use  of  dat.,  387, 

3. 
Cupio,  constr.,  551,  II.  1  and  2. 

D    DROPPED  before  .s,  36  ;  quan- 
,     tity  of  final  syllables  in,  621. 
Dactylic  verse,  670  ff.     Dactylico- 
iambic,  693. 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


341 


Dnma,  gend.  of,  48,  5. 

Damni  in/ecd,  w.  verbs  of  promis- 
ing, 409,  5. 

Dates,  Lat.  and  Eng.,  710. 

Dative,  formation  of, — in  1st  dec, 
49,  4 ;  in  3d  dec,  58,  2 ;  in  4th 
dec,  117;  in  5th  dec,  120. 

Dative,  syntax  of,  382-392,— with 
verbs,  384  ff.  Of  advant.  and  dis- 
advant ,  385.  W.  compds.,  386. 
Of  possessor,  387.  Of  agent,  388. 
Ethical  dat.,  389.  Two  dat.,  390. 
W.  adjs.,  391.  W.  nouns  and 
adv.,  392.  Of  gerunds,  etc.,  564. 
W.  verbs  of  Separ.,  425,  2,  3). 

Laium^  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

De,  in  compds.  w.  dat.,  386,  2.  De 
w.  abl.,  434. 

Dccerno,  constr.,  558,  11. 

Dccipioy  w.  gen.,  409,  4 ;  410,  7. 

Declarative  sentence,  346. 

Declaring,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  651. 

Declension,  46 ;  first,  48 ;  second, 
51;  third,  55;  fourth,  116;  sec- 
ond and  fourth,  119;  fifth,  120. 
Comparative  view  of  decl.,  123. 
Decl.  of  compds.,  125. 

Dkli,  quantity  of,  651,  2. 

Dedocco,  constr.,  374,  2  and  3. 

Defective  nouns,  120,  4;  129;  def. 
adjs.,  159  ;  def  comparison,  166  ; 
def.  verbs,  297. 

Deliberative  questions,  w.  the  subj., 
486,  11. 

Demanding,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
374  ;  558,  VI. 

Demonstratives,  1 86  ;  use  of,  450. 

Denarius,  712. 

Dentals,  3. 

Deponent  verbs,  225  ;  465,  2. 

Derivation,  313;  of  nouns,  314  ff. ; 
of  adjs.,  322  ff. ;  of  verbs,  330  ff. ; 
of  adverbs,  333  ff. 

Derivatives,  quantity  of,  653  ;  quan- 
tity of  deriv.  endings,  646  ff. 

Desideratives,  332,  III. 

DesinOy  w.  gen.,  409,  4. 

Desire,  subj.  of,  487  ff. ;  in  assevera- 
tions, 488,  4 ;  in  relat.  clauses, 
488,  5. 

Desiring,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  551. 

Desisto,  w.  gen.,  409,  4. 

Despero,  w.  ace,  371,  3. 

Deta'ior,  compared,  166. 


[  Detet-reo,  constr.,  499,  1,  2. 

Deus,  51,  5. 
!  Diaeresis,  669,  III. 
j  Diana,  quantitv  of,  G12,  3. 
Diastole,  669,  IV. 
Die  for  dice,  2;>7. 

-dicus,  compds.  in  compared,  164. 
Dido,  68. 

Difference,  abl.  of,  418. 
Differing,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  885,  4. 
Differo,  w.  dat.,  385,  4. 
Dignor,  constr.,  419,  2. 
Digmis,   constr.,  419  ;  dignus,  qui, 

w.  subj.,  501,  III. 
Dimeter,  663,  2. 
Diminutive  nouns,  315  ;  dim.  adjs., 

327 ;  dim.  verbs,  332,  IV. 
Diphthongs,  4  ;  sounds  of,  9,  16  ; 

quantity  of,  610. 
Dipody,  656,  2. 
Direct  object,  354,  1;  371. 
Dis,  di,  338,  3. 
Disadvantage,  dat  of,  385. 
Discrrpo,  w.  dat.,  385,  4. 
Disjunctive  conjs.,  810 ;  587  ;  sen- 
tences, 360. 
Dispar,  constr.,  391,  2,  4). 
Displeasing,  verbs  of,  w.  dal.,  ".85. 
Dissnifio,  w.  dat.,  385,  4. 
Dissimilis,  constr.,  391,  2,  4). 
Dissyllabic   perfects   and    supines, 

quantity  of,  651. 
Distance,  abl.  of,  378,  2. 
Distich,  666. 
Disio,  w.  dat.,  885,  4. 
Distributives,   172;  174;   decl.  of, 

179. 
Dill,  compared,  305,  4. 
Dius,  quantity  of,  612,  3. 
Diversus,  compared,  167. 
Dives,  compared,  165,  2. 
Doceo,  constr.,  374,  2  and  3. 
Doleo,  w.  accus.,  871,  3 ;  w.  clause, 

558,  v.;  w.  abl.,  414,  2,  1). 
Domus,  decl.  of,  119;  gend.,  118; 

constr.,  379,  3 ;  424,  2. 
Donee,  w.  indie  or  subj.,  521  ff. 
Dono,  constr.,  384,  1. 
Double  constr.  of  a  few  verbs,  384, 1. 
Double  consonants,  3. 
Due  for  duce,  237. 
Diim,  dummodo,  w.  subj.,  603  ff. ;  w. 

ind.  or  subj.,  521  ff. 
Duo,  decl.  of,  175. 


342 


IXDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


E  SOUND  of,  6,  15.  Nouns  in 
,  e,— 1st  dec,  50 ;  3d  dec,  63  ; 
gend.,  111.  j^^ in  Greek  ace.  plur., 
08,  6  ;  for  ei  in  gen.  and  dat,  120, 
8  ;  ^  in  adverbs,  335 ;  changed 
to  ?;  341,  3. 

ii",  quantity  of — in  a,  120,  2;  final, 
616  ;  in  increments  of  decl.,  635  ; 
of  conjugation,  641. 

Ij  or  ex,  see  ex. 

J^cce  with  demonstratives,  186,  4;  in 
exclamations,  367,  3  ;  381,  3. 

Bcquis,  188,  3.     Ecquid,  346,  II.  2. 

Edoceo,  constr.,  374,  2  and  3. 

Ejenus,  w.  gen.  or  abl.,  399,  (3); 
419,  III. 

E/eo,  constr.,  409,  1. 

i^Vo,  decl.  of,  184. 

Ehea.,  quantitv  of,  612,  2. 

El,  9,  16.     E\  quantity  of,  612,  2. 

-ei3,  in  patronymics,  316. 

-eiU3,  quantity  of,  612,  2. 

EJusmodi,  186,  5. 

-ela,  nouns  in,  320,  7. 

Elegiac  distich,  676,  2. 

Elegiambus,  693,  1. 

Elements  of  sentences,  317  fF. 

Ellipsis,  704  ;  of /acio,  oro,  367,  3 
602,  II,  3. 

-elluSj  ella,  ellimij  nouns  in,  315 
adjs.  in,  327,  1. 

E  uotion,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  551 
558,  Y. 

Emphasis  and  euphony  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  Avords,  594, 

-en,  nouns  in,  76  ;  en  in  Greek  ace, 
50,  68  ;  with  demonstratives,  186, 
4;  in  exclamations,  367,  3;  381,  3. 

Enallage,  704,  III. 

Enclitics,  accent  of,  25,  3  ;  quantity 
of,  613,  1. 

Endeavoring,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
558,  III. 

Endings,  46  ;  in  1st  dec,  48  ;  in  2d 
dec,  51,  2;  in  3d  dec,  57  ff;  in 
4th  dec,  116;  in  5th  dec,  120; 
in  comparison,  162  ;  in  conjuga- 
tion, 241  flp. 

English  pronunciation  of  Latin,  0  IF. 

Eiiim,  place  of,  602,  III. 

-ensis,  adjs.  in,  325  ff. 

-entior,  entissimus,  in  compari- 
son, 164. 

Envying,  verbs  of,  w.  dat,  385. 


Eo,  w.  gen.,  396,  2,  4). 

Epenthesis,  703,  5. 

Epicene  nouns,  43,  3. 

Epichoriambic  verse,  690, 

Epiphora,  704,  II.  4. 

Epitome,  dec.  of,  50. 

Epulum,  plur.,  epulae,  143. 

-er,  gend.  of  nouns  in,  51,  99.  Adjs. 
in,  153;  comparison  of,  163,  1. 
Adverbs  in,  335. 

-ere,  for  a'unt,  235. 

Erffa,  w.  ace,  433. 

Ergo,  w,  gen,,  411. 

-es,  nouns  in,  58,  64,  120;  genitive 
of,  80, 81;  gender  of,  104, 109, 120. 

-es,  final,  sound  of,  8,  1 ;  quantity 
of,  624. 

-esco,  inceptives  in,  332,  11. 

-esso,  essim,  in  fut,,  perf.,  and  perf. 
subj,,  239,  4  ;  esso,  verbs  in,  232. 

-ester,  adjs.  in,  325,  1. 

-etas,  nouns  in,  319,  1. 

Ethical  dative,  389. 

Etiamsi,  ctsi,  w.  subj.,  515,  518,  III. 

-etum,  nouns  in,  3i7. 

Etymology,  37-342. 

Eu,  sound  of,  9. 

Euphonic  clianges,  26  ff. ;  in  vowels, 
27  ff. ;  in  consonants,  33  ff. ;  be- 
fore si,  sum,  turn,  258 ;  in  prep- 
ositions, 338,  2. 

Euphony,  see  Emphasis. 

-eus,  adjs.  in,  321,  326. 

Evenit,  constr.,  556,  II. 

-ex,  genit.  of  nouns  in,  93. 

Ex,  e,  in  compds.  w.  dat.  386,  2.  Ex, 
w.  abl.,  434. 

Exchanging,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
416,  2. 

Exclamatory  sentences,  346,  IV.; 
accus.  in,  381 ;  voc,  nom.,  dat. 
in,  381,  3  ;  infinitive  in,  653,  III. 

Exoro,  constr,,  374,  2. 

Expers,  exsors,  w.  gen.,  399,  (3). 

Extcmis,  compared,  163,  3. 

Extra,  w.  ace,  433. 

Exiremum  est,  constr.,  556,  I.  2. 

Exuo,  constr.,  374,  7 ;  384,  1. 

FAC,  for/ac5,  237. 
Facio,  w.  pred.  gen.,  403. 
Facio  ut,  w.  subj.=  indie,  489,  1. 
Falsiim  est,  constr.,  556,  I.  2. 
Falsus,  compared,  167. 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


543 


Fames,  abl.  fame,  137,  2. 

Familia,  genitive  of,  49,  1. 

Fearing,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  492,  4. 

Feeling,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  551 ; 
558,  V. 

Feet,  metrical,  G56  ff. 

Feminine,  42. 

Fa-,  for  fere,  237. 

Fertilis,  w.  gen.,  abl.,  or  ace,  399, 
2,  (3)  and  5. 

-fex,  compds.  in,  339,  % 

-ficus,  adjs.  in,  compared,  1G4. 

Fido,  w.  dat.,  385 ;  w.  abl.,  419. 

Figures, — of  prosody,  609  ;  of  ety- 
mology, 703  ;  of  syntax,  704 ;  of 
Rhetoric,  705. 

Filling,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  410,  7. 

Final  conjs.,  311  ;  588,  V. 

Final  syllables,  quantity  of,  613  ff. ; 
final  syllable  of  the  verse,  665. 

Finite,  or  definite  moods,  196;  finite 
verb,  196. 

Fio,  quantity  of,  612,  3. 

Fit,  constr.,  5 5 6,  II. 

Flagito,  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2 ;  w. 
subj.,  558,  VI. 

Foci,  locat.  of  place,  424,  3. 

Following,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  556, 
III. 

Formation, — of  cases,  46  ;  of  parts 
of  verbs,  201  fF.;  of  words,313-342. 

Fractions,  174,  1. 

Freeing,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  410,  7. 

Frenum,  \>\.,freni,frena,  143. 

Frequentatives,  332. 

Fretus,  w.  abl.,  419,  TV. 

Frugi^  indecl.,  159;  compared,  105. 

Fruor,  constr.,  419. 

Fungor,  constr.,  419. 

Furor,  w.  dat.,  425,  2. 

Future,  197;  215,1.;  in  indie,  470; 
w.  force  of  imperat.,  470,  1 ;  for 
Eng.  pres.,470,  2  ;  w.  meUus,4:lO, 
8.  Wanting  in  subj.,  479;  how 
supplied,  481,  III.  1.  In  imperat., 
534,  537 ;  fut.  for  pres.,  and  pres, 
for  fut.,  534,  1  and  2.  In  infin., 
543  ff. ;  circumlocution  for,  544. 
In  part.,  573. 

Future  Perfect,  197;  215,11.;  in  in- 
die, 473;  to  denote  certainty, 
473,  1;  for  Eng.  pres.,  473,  2. 
Wanting  in  subj.,  479  ;  how  sup- 
plied, 481.  III.  2. 


Futurum  esse,  ficlsse,  fore,  ut,  544, 

1-3. 
Fuiui-um  sit  w^,  481,  III.  1  and  2. 

G  SOUND  of,  11  ff.,  17;  changed, 
,     258. 

Gaudeo,  constr.,  371,  3;  551,  III.; 
558,  V. ;  414,  2. 

Gemo,  w.  accus.,  371,  3. 

Gems,  gender  of  names  of,  53. 

Gender,  42  ff. ;  in  1st  dec,  48 ;  in 
2d  dec,  51,  53;  in  3d  dec,  99- 
115;  in  4th  dec,  118;  in  5th  dec, 
121 ;  general  table  of,  124. 

Genitive,  endings  of,  47 ;  in  1st  dec, 
48 ;  as  for  ae,  nm  for  arum,  49  ; 
in  2d  dec,  51 ;  i  for  ii,  um  for 
arum,,  52  ;  o  or  on,  54 ;  in  3d  dec, 
69-98;  in  4th  dec,  116;  uis  for 
us,  117;  in  5th  dec,  120;  e  or  i 
for  ei,  120,  3.  In  adjectives,  151- 
158. 

Genitive,  how  rendered,  393,  393, 
1. 

Genitive,  syntax  of,  393-411,— with 
nouns,  395  ;  varieties,  396 ;  pecu- 
liarities, 397  ;  other  constrs.  for 
gen.,  398.  W.  adjs.,  399.  W.  verbs, 
401  ff.  Fred,  gen.,  401  ff. ;  other 
constrs.  for,  404.  In  special  con- 
strs., 405  ff.  Ace  and  gen.,  410. 
W.  adverbs,  411.  Gen.  of  ge- 
runds and  gerundives,  563. 

Genilus,  w.  abl.,  425,  3. 

Gentile  nouns,  326,  3. 

Gerund, — Nature  of,  559.  Cases  of, 
560.  Ger.andlnfin.,  580, 2.  W. 
direct  object,  501.  Gerundive, 
562;  of  utor,  fricor,  etc,  562,  4. 
Pass,  sense  of  Ger.,  562,  5.  Gen- 
itive of  ger.  and  gerundive,  663 ; 
ger.  when  preferred,  563,  2 ;  ge- 
rundive with  mei,  nostri,  etc.,  563, 
4  ;  of  purpose,  563,  5  ;  infin.  for 
ger.,  563,  6.  Dat.  of,  564;  of 
purpose,  with  official  names,  564, 
2  and  3.  Accus.  of,  565  ;  w.  ob- 
ject, 565,  2 ;  of  purpose,  565,  S. 
Abl.  of,  566. 

Glorior,  w.  abl.,  414,  2. 

Gloriosum  est,  556,  I.  2. 

Glyconic  verse,  664,  689. 

Gnarus,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

Golden  age,  706. 


344 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


Greek  nouns, — in  1st  dec,  50 ;  in  2d 

dec,  54 ;  in  3d  dec,  68. 
Gutturals,  3. 

HA  BREATHING,  2. 
J     Hadria^  gender  of,  48,  5. 

Happening,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  556, 
II. 

Haud.,  ne,  non,  584. 

Hendecasyllabic  verse,  691,  V. 

Hendiadys,  704,  II.  2. 

Ilephthemimeris,  656,  2. 

Heroic  verse,  664. 

Jleros,  decl.  of,  68. 

Heteroclites,  135  fF. 

Heterogeneous  nouns,  141  fF. 

Hexameter  verse,  663,  2  Dactylic, 
611. 

Jlic^  iste,  ille,  decl.  of,  186, ;  use  of, 
450. 

Hie  and  ille,  redundant,  450,  4,  2). 

Ilic  (adv.),  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 

Hipponactean,  683,  4. 

Historical  tenses,  198,  2  ;  hist,  pres- 
ent, 467,  III. ;  hist,  perfect,  471,  II. 

Ilodie,  quantity  of,  654,  8. 

Horace,  versification  of,  698  if.  Lyric 
metres  of,  700.     Index,  701. 

Ilorreo^  w.  accus.,  371,  3. 

Hue,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 

Hujusmodi,  186,  5. 

Humus,  gender  of,  53 ;  constr.  of 
humi,  424,  2. 

Hypallage,  704,  III.  2, 

Hyperbaton,  704,  IV. 

Hyperbole,  705,  V. 

Hypercatalectic  verse,  663,  III. 

Hypermeter,  663,  III. 

Hypothetical  sentences,  see  Condi- 
tional ditto. 

Hysteron  proteron,  704,  IV.  2. 

I  SUPPLIES  the  place  of  j,  2,  3  ; 
)  sound  of,  6  fF. ;  15;  with  the 
sound  of  ?/,  7 ;  4,  4) ;  15,  3  ;  i  for 
ii,  ie,  52.  Nouns  in,  71 ;  gender 
of,  111 ;  i,  final  in  abl,  62  ff. ;  for 
ei,  120,  3 ;  in  perfect,  247,  2.  /, 
quantity  of, — final,  618  ;  in  incre- 
ments of  decl.,  636  ;  of  conjuga- 
tion, 643. 

-ia,  nouns  in,  319;  in  nom.,  ace, 
and  voc.  plur.,  63. 

-iaciis,  adja.  in,  826. 


-iades,  in  patronymics,  816. 

larabelegus,  694,  1. 

Iambic  verse, — Dipody,  682.  Tri- 
meter,  683 ;  chohambus,  683,  4 ; 
catalectic,  684.  Dimeter,  685; 
hypermeter,  685,  1 ;  catalectic, 
685,  2 ;  acephalous,  685,  3.  Te- 
trameter, 686. 

lambico-dactylic  verse,  694. 

-ianus,  adjs.  in,  326. 

-ias,  in  patronymics,  316. 

-ibam,  for  iebam,  239,  1. 

-ibo,  ibor,  for  iam,  iar,  239,  2. 

-icius,  adjs.  in,  324. 

Ictus,  659. 

-icus,  adjs.  in,  325  ff. 

Idem,  decl,  186;  w.  dat.,  391,3-, 
use  of,  451.  Idem — qui,  ac  or  at- 
que,  451,  5. 

Ides,  of  the  calendar,  708,  L  3. 

-ides,  in  patronymics,  316. 

-ido,  nouns  in,  320,  7. 

Idoneus  qui,  w.  subj.,  501,  III. 

-idus,  verbals  in,  828. 

-iensis,  adjs.  in,  326. 

-ier,  for  i  in  infin.,  239,  6. 

Igitur,  place  in  the  clause,  602,  III. 

Ignarus,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

-igo,  noims  in,  320,  7. 

-ile,  nouns  in,  317. 

-ilis,  adjs.  in,  325,  328 ;  compared, 
163,  2. 

Illative  conjs.,  310;  587,  IV.;  sen- 
tences,  360. 

Ille,  decl.  of,  186;  use  of,  450. 

niie  for  ille,  186,  3. 

-illo,  verbs  in,  332,  IV. 

-illus,  ilia,  ilium,  in  nouns,  315,  3 ; 
in  adjs.,  327,  1. 

-im,  in  ace  62 ;  for  am,  or  em  in 
pres.  subj.,  239,  3. 

Immemor,  w.  gen.,  399,  2. 

-imonia,  nouns  in,  319. 

Impedio,  constr.,  499,  1,  2. 

Imperative,  196.  Tenses,  534.  Use, 
535,  fF.;  pres.,  536;  fut.,  537;  in 
prohibitions,  638. 

Imperative  sentences,  346,  III. 

Imperfect  tense,  197;  215,  I.;  w. 
jamdiu,  etc.  467,  2.  In  indie,  468 
ff.;  in  lively  description,  of  custom- 
ary or  repeated  action,  469  ;  of  at- 
tempted action,  in  letters,  469,  1 
and  2.     In  Subj.,  477;  of  present 


INDKX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


345 


time,  481,  V.;  after  Perf.  Def., 
482,  1 ;  for  Pluperf.,  486,  4 ;  in 
desires  and  wishes,  488,  2 ;  in 
condition,  510;  after  antequxtn 
a.nd  prkisquam,  523,  2, 

ItnperiiuSj  w.  gen.  399,  (2). 

Jmpero,  constr.,  551,  II.  I  and  2. 

Impersonal  verbs,  298  ff. ;  subjects 
of,  556,  I.-III. 

Impertio,  constr.,  384,  1. 

Lnpleo,  constr.,  410,  7. 

Lnpos,  157,  2;  w.  gen.,  399,  (3). 

Lnpotens,  w.  gen.,  399,  (3i 

Imprudens,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

-in,  in  Greek  aces.,  68. 

In,  in  compds.,  338,  2 ;  w.  two  aces., 
374,  6;  w.  dat.,  386.  In,  w.  ace, 
or  abl.,  43 5. 

In  loco,  or  in  nu:nero,  w.  genit.,  362, 
2,  (3). 

Incoptives,  inchoatives,  332,  II. 

Incertus,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

Inclination,  subj.  of,  486,  3. 

Inclutus,  compared,  167. 

Increments,  629  flf. ;  quantity  of,  632 
ff,  639  ff 

Indeclinable  nouns,  gender  of,  42; 
examples,  128.    Indecl.  adjs.,  159. 

Indefinite  moods,  196. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  189 ;  use  of, 
455  ff. 

Index  of  verbs,  721. 

Indicative,  196  ;  use  of,  474  ff. ;  spe- 
cial uses,  475. 

Indigeo,  constr.,  409,  1. 

Indignus,  w.  abl.,  419,  IV. ;  indigmis 
qui,  w.  subj.,  501,  III. 

Indirect  discourse,  distinguished 
from  direct,  528.  Subj.  in,  529. 
Moods  in  prin.  clause,  530 ;  in  sub. 
clause,  531.  Tenses,  532;  Pro- 
nouns, adverbs,  etc.,  533. 

Indirect  object,  354,  2.  Rule,  384 : 
indirect  w.  direct,  384,  II. 

Indirect  questions,  524  ff., — Subj.  in, 
525.  Indie,  in,  525,  6  ;  in  orat. 
obliqua,  530,  II.  2 ;  sing,  and  dou- 
ble, 526. 

InJuco,  constr.,  374,  7. 

Indulging,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  885. 

Induo,  constr.,  374,  7;  384,  1. 

-ine,  in  patronymics,  316,  5. 

-ineus,  adjs.  in,  324. 

Inform,  comparoJ,  1G3,  3. 


Infinitive,  196,  II.  Tenses  of,  540 
ff.  Subject  of,  545 ;  of  ilist.  in- 
fin.,  545,  1.  Predicate  after,  546  ; 
attracted,  547.  Construction  of, 
548  ff. ;  as  Norn.,  549 ;  as  Accus., 
550  ff. ;  w.  another  ace,  552,  2 ; 
in  relative  clauses,  531,  1;  after 
conjunctions,  531,  2;  after  adjs., 

552,  3 ;  after  prepa,,  552,  4 ;  iu 
special   constrs.,  5^3 ;    as   pred., 

553,  I. ;  as  appos.,  553,  II. ;  in 
exclam.,  553,  III. ;  as  abl.  abs., 
553,  IV^;  of  Purpose,  553,  A.; 
for  Gerund,  C53,  VI. 

Infra,  w.  ace,  433. 

Ingenii,  w.  adjs.,  399,  3. 

Injuring,  verba  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 

Innitor,  constr.,  419. 

Inops,  w.  gen.  or  abl.,  399,  (3);  419. 

I>isci2is,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

Inseparable  preps.,  307 ;  654,  2. 

Inspergo,  constr.,  384,  1. 

Instrument,  abl.  of,  414,  4. 

Imicesco,  w.  abl.,  386,  2. 

Insuctus,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2) ;  w.  other 
constrs.,  399,  5. 

Insupcr,  w.  ace,  437,  3. 

Integer,  w.  gen.,  899,  3. 

Inter,  in  compds.,  338,  2 ;  w.  d-at., 
386.     Inter,  w.  ace,  433. 

Inierclado,  constr.,  384,  1. 

Interest,  w.  gen.,  406,  III. 

Interior,  compared,  166. 

Interjections,  312;  w.  voe,  369,  1; 
w.  nom.,  ace,  or  dat.,  381,  3  ;  use 
of,  589  ff. 

Interrogative  conjunctions,  311,  588. 

Interrogative  pronouns,  188  ;  use  of, 
454. 

Interrogative  sentences,  —  Form, 
346,  II.  Intcrrog.,  words,  346, 
II.  1.  Double  quest.,  346,  II.  2. 
Delibcr.  quest.,  486,  II.  Answers, 
346,  II.  3.  Indirect  quest.,  525 ; 
w.  indie,  525,  6 ;  single  and  dou- 
ble, 523.  In  indirect  discourse, 
529  fF. ;  rhetorical  quct.,  530,  2. 

Interrogo,  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2;  w. 
ace  and  abl.,  374,  2,  3. 

Intra,  w.  accus.,  433. 

Intransitive  verbs,  193  ;  371,3;  im- 
personal pass.,  465,  1. 

-inxia,  adjs.  in,  324  ff. 

Invidua,  \\\  gen.  or  dat.,  899,  2,  2). 


346 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


Invitus,  idiomatic  use  of  dat,,  887,  3. 
-io,  verbs  of  Sd  coiij.  in,  221  tf. ; 

nouns  in,  318,  321. 
Ionic  verse,  68*7. 
-ior,  in  comparatives,  1G2. 
Ipse,  decl.  of,  186  ;  use  of,  452. 
Jpsus,  for  ipse,  186,  4. 
Iron  age,  706. 

Irony,  705,  IV. ;  in  condition,  503,  3. 
Irregular  nouns,  127  fF. ;  irreg.  adjs., 

159;  irreg.  comparison,  163  ff. 
Irregular  principal  parts  of  verbs, 

259-288  ;  irreg.  verbs,  287  ff. 
Is,  decl.  of,  186;  use  of,  451;  re- 
flexive, 448  ;   redundant,  450,  4. 

Is — qicl,  451,  4. 
-is,  in  ace,  dat.,  and  abl.  plur.,  of 

3d  decl.,  58,  2  ;  02.     Nouns  in  is, 

82  ;  gender  of,  105. 
-is,  in  patronymics,  316;  quantity 

of  is  final,  626. 
-isco,  inceptives  in,  332,  II. 
Islands,  gend.  of  names  of,  42  ;  con- 

str.  of  names  of,  424. 
-issimus,  in  superlatives,  162. 
-is30,  verbs  in,  332. 
Isfc,  decl.  of,  186  ;  use  of,  450. 
Isfic,  isthic,  for  iste,  186,  2. 
Ita-si,  only  if,  503,  4. 
-itas,  nouns  in,  319. 
-iter,  adverbs  in,  335. 
Ithyphalicus,  681,  2. 
-itia,  nouns  in,  319. 
-itimus,  adjs.  in,  325,  1. 
-itium,  nouns  in,  318. 
-ito,  frequcntatives  in,  332. 
-itudOj  nouns  in,  319. 
Itum,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 
-itus,  nouns  in,  318  ;  adjs.  in,  323  ; 

adverbs  in,  334,  2. 
-iunij  in  genit.  plur.,  62  ff. ;  nouns 

in,  318  ff. 
-ius,   adjs.    in,    326 ;    quantity   of, 
_  612,  3. 
-ix,  genitive  of  nouns  in,  94. 

J    PLACE  supplied  by  i,  2 ;  length- 
j      ens  preceding  vowel,  611. 
Jecur,  genitive  of,  77,  IV. 
•locus,  lA.,  joci,  joca,  141. 
Jobeo,  constr.,  551,  II.,  1  and  2. 
Jugerum,  decl.  of,  136  ;  use  of,  718. 
Jugmn,  quantity  of  compds.  of,  611, 


Jungo,  w.  dat.,  385,  5. 
Jupiter,  genitive  of,  66,  3. 
Jusjurandum,  decl.  of,  126. 
Juvenal,  versification  of,  696. 
Juvenalis,  abl.  of,  62,  IV.  1. 
Juvenis,  abl.  of,   62,  IV.    1 ;    com- 
pared, 168,  3. 
Juvo,  w.  accus.,  385,  1. 
Juxia,  w.  accus.,  433. 


K 


RARE,  2. 
y      Knowing,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
551,  I.  1. 


L    NOUNS  in,  63 ;  genit.  of,  75 ; 
;      gender,  111  ff. ;  quantity  of 

final  syllables  in,  621. 
Labials,  3. 

Labor o,  v/.  abl.,  414,  2. 
Lacrimo,  w.  accus.,  371,  3. 
Leado,  w.  accus.,  385,  1. 
Lar,  quantity  of  genit.,  633,  4. 
Lassus,  w.  gen.,  399,  3. 
Latin  authors,  706. 
Latin  grammar,  1. 
Latin  period,  605. 
-lentus,  adjs.  in,  323. 
Letters,  classes  of,  3  ;  combinations 

of,  4 ;  sounds  of,  6  flf. 
Libera,  w.  abl.  or  gen.,  425,  3. 
Libra,  714. 
Licet,  w.  subj.,  515. 
Liquids,  3. 
Litotes,  705,  VL 
Litum,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 
Locative,  45,  2  ;  in  1st  decl.,  48,  4; 

in  2d  decl.,  51,  6 ;  in  3d  decl.,  62, 

IV.  3.     Sjmtax  of,  421  ff. 
Logaoedic  verse,  691. 
Longius,  without  quam,  417,  3. 
-Is,  genit.  of  nouns  in,  89. 

M  EUPHONIC  changes  of,  258, 
,  338,  2  ;  quantity  of  final  syl- 
lables in,  621 ;  elided,  669,  L 

-ma,  dat.  and  abl.  plur.  of  nouns  in, 
58,  2. 

Magis,  niaxime,  in  adverbial  com- 
parison, 170. 

3Iagmis,  compared,  165. 

Major,  in  expressions  of  age,  417,  3. 

Making,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  373 ; 
w.  subj.,  558,  IV. 

Malo,  constr.,  551,  II.  1  and  2. 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


347 


Malus,  compared,  165. 

Manifestus,  w.  gen.,  399,  3. 

Manner,  means,  abl.  of,  41-4 ;  parti- 
ciple for,  678,  II. 

Masculine,  42. 

Material  nouns,  39,  1. 

Measure  of  difference,  abl.  of,  418; 
measure  in  prosody,  G03, 11. ;  Ro- 
man measure,  715  ff. 

Jfed,  for  7ne,  184,  8. 

Medeor,  w.  dat.,  385,  2. 

Medius,  designating  part,  441,  6. 

Melius,  w.  indie,  for  subj  ,  475,  2-4. 

Jfelos,  plur.  of,  08,  G. 

3feme,  184,  7. 

Jfeinini,  w.  gen.,  40G,  II. ;  w.  ace, 
407,  1. 

Manor,  w.  gen.,  899,  2). 

-men;  mentuni;  nouns  in,  320. 

Mensa,  dec),  of,  48. 

Mepte,  18 1,  8. 

-met,  forms  in,  184,  6  ;  185,  2. 

Metaphor,  705,  I. 

Metathesis,  703,  7. 

Metonymy,  705,  II. 

Metre,  G67. 

Metrical  equivalents  and  substitutes, 
G57,  658. 

Metuo,  constr.,  385,  3  ;  492,  4. 

Metis,  decl.,  185. 

Mi  for  mUd,  184,  8. 

Milifia,  constr.,  424,  2. 

MUle,  decl.  and  use  of,  174,  4;  178. 

MiUion,  cardinal  for,  174;  svmbol 
for,  180. 

Million  sesterces,  Latin  for,  713,  4, 

-mino,  in  imperatives,  239,  5. 

Mhior,  minus,  without  qtiam,  417,  3. 

Miror,  w.  accus,,  371,  3;  w.  gen., 
409,  4. 

Mirum  est,  constr.  of,  556,  I.  2. 

Mis  for  met,  184,  8. 

Misceo,  w.  dat.,  or  abl.,  385,  5. 

Misercor,  miseresco,  w.  gen.,  406. 

Miseret,  constr.,  410.  Miscrcscit, 
miseretur,  410,  6. 

Modcror,  constr.,  385,  3. 

Modifier,  348  ff. 

Modi  us,  715. 

Modo,  w.  subj.,  503,  505. 

Moercx>,  w.  accus.,  371,  3. 

Moneo,  constr.,  410,  3. 

Money,  Roman,  712  ff. 

Monoraeter,  663,  2. 
1'3 


Monosyllables,  quantity  of,  613. 
Months,  Roman,  707;   division  of, 

708 ;  gender  of  names  of,  42. 
Moods,  196,— Indie,  474  ff.     Suly., 

483-533.     Imperat.,  534  ff.     In- 

fin.,    539-553.      Gerund,    559   ff. 

Supine,  567  ff.     Tart.,  671  ff. 
Mood-signs,  244  ff. 
Mos,  moris  est,  constr.,  556,  I.  1. 
-ms,  gen.  of  nouns  in,  87. 
Multiplicatives,  173. 
Mtdtus,  comparison  of,  1C5. 
Mutes,  3. 
Muto,  constr.,  416,  2. 

N  NOUNS  in,  CO;  genit.  of,  76; 
9  gend.  of,  HI,  113;  quantity 
of  final  syllables  in,  621. 

Name,  dat.  of,  387, 1 ;  gen.  of,  387,  2. 

Names  of  towns,  const.,  423. 

Xaius,  w.  abl.,  425,  3. 

Xe,  num,  nonne,  intcrrog.  particles, 
311,  8;  in  single  questions,  346, 
II.  1 ;  in  double,  346,  II.  2  ;  in  in- 
direct questions,  626. 

Xc,  w.  subj.  of  desire,  488,  3 ;  of 
purpose,  489  ff. ;  of  concession, 
515. 

Xe,  non,  hand,  584.     Xeve,  490,  1. 

Xecne,  346,  II.  2,  3);  626,  2,  1). 

Xedwn,  w.  subj.,  493,  4. 

Negatives,  584 ;  force  of  two  nega- 
tives, 585. 

Xemo,  72;  use  of,  457,  1. 

Xequam,  indecl.,  159 ;  compared, 
165,  2. 

Xe—quidem,  585  ;  602,  III.  2. 

Xescio  an,  w.  suly.,  526,  II.  2,  2). 

Xescio  quis,  quomodo^  etc  ,  w.  indie, 
525,  4. 

Xescius,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

-neus,  adjs.  in,  324. 

Xeuler,  decl.  of,  151. 

Neuter  adjectives,  as  adverbs,  335, 
4 ;  as  cognate  accus.,  371,  1,  S) 
(2) ;  as  a  second  accus.,  374,  5 ; 
w.  partitive  genit.,  396,  III.  2,  3) 
(3) ;  as  predicate,  438,  4. 

Neuter  nouns,  nom.,  ace,  and  voc. 
of,  46,  2  ;  neuter  by  signification, 
42  ;  by  ending,  in  2d  dee,  61, 
53;  in  3d  dee,  111  ff. ;  in  4th 
dee,  116. 

Xi,  w.  subj.,  503,  507  ff. 


348 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


J^^mis,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 

Msi,  w.  subj.,  503,  507  ff. 

Nisi  and  si  non,  meaning,  508,  3. 

Nitor,  constr.,  419. 

Nix,  66. 

Nolo,  constr.,  551,  II.  1  and  2  ;  noli, 

-ilo,  in  prohibitions,  535,  1,  3). 
Nomen  est,  constr.,  387,  1. 
Nominative,  syntax  of,  366  fF.  ;  as 

subject,  367  ;  agreement  of,  368  ; 

for  voc,  369,  2. 
Noii,  ne,  hand,  584 ;  place  of  non, 

602,  IV.,  omitted,  584,  2. 
Non,  w.  qv/),  quod,  quin,  quia,  w. 

subj.,  520,  3. 
Nones  in  the  Roman  month,  708, 1.  2. 
Nonne,  non  =  nonne,  346,  II.  1. 
Nos,  for  ego,  446,  2. 
Nosier,  for  mens,  446,  2. 
Nostras,  185,  3. 

Nostri,  nostrum,  396,  1 ;  446,  3. 
Nouns,  etymology  of, — gender  of, 

42   ff. ;    pers.    and    numb.,   44  ; 

cases,  45;   declensions,  48-126; 

indecl,  128 ;  defect.,  129 ;  hetero- 

clites,  135  fif. ;  heterogeneous,  141. 
Nouns,  syntax  of,  362-437, — ^Agree- 
ment,   362   ff.      Nom.,    364   ff. ; 

Voc,    369;     Accus.,    370-381; 

Dat.,  382-392;    Gen.,  393-411; 

Abl.,  412-431;  w.  preps.,  432- 

437. 
Novus,  compared,  167. 
Noxiics,  w.  gen.,  399,  3. 
-ns,  genit.  of  nouns  in,  90. 
Nubo,  w.  dat.,  385,  2. 
Nullus,  decl.  of,  151;  use  of,  457; 

for  non,  457,  3. 
Num,  numquid,  346,  II.  1  and  2. 
Number,  44;  in  verbs,  199. 
Numerals,  171  ff. ;    adjs.,  172  ff .  ; 

decl.  of,  175  ff. ;  symbols,  180; 

adverbs,  181. 
-nu3,  adjectives  in,  324. 
Nusquam,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 

0  SOUND  of,  6  ff.,  15 ;  nouns  in, 
,  60,  72;  gend.,  99,  100;  de- 
rivatives in,  320,  6  ;  331. 
0,  quantity  of, — final,  620 ;  in  in- 
crements, 634,  642 ;  in  corapds., 
654,  7. 
Ob,  in  compds.,  338,  2 ;  in  compds. 
w.  dat,,  386.     Ob,  w.  ace,  433. 


Obediens,  w.  two  datives,  390,  3. 
Obeying,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 
Object,  direct,  indirect,   combined, 

354;  direct,  371;    omit,  371,  1, 

(3);  clause  as  an  object,  371,  5; 

557  ff.     See  Subject  and  object 

clauses. 
Objective  genitive,  396,  II. 
Oblique  cases,  45,  1 ;  use  of,  370- 

437. 
Obliviscor,  w.  gen.,  406,  II. ;  other 

constrs.,  407. 
Obsisto,  obsto,  constr.,  499,  1,  2. 
Ocior,  compared,  166. 
Oe,  sound  of,  9,  16. 
Oficio,  constr.,  499,  1,  2. 
Ohe,  quantity,  612,  4. 
-olentus,  adjectives  in,  323. 
Oleo  and  redoleo,  w.  ace,  371,  3. 
Ollus,  for  ille,  186,  4. 
-olus,  ola,  olum,  in  diminutives, — 

in  nouns,  315,  2  ;  in  adjs.,  327,  1. 
Omnes,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  2,  3). 
-on,  in  Greek  gen.  plur.,  68,  4. 
-one,  in  patronymics,  316,  5. 
Operam  do^  w.  subj.,  492,  1. 
Optimum  est,  constr.,  556,  I.  2. 
Opus,  constr.,  419. 
-or,  gender  of  nouns  in,  99,  101 ; 

derivation  of,  320  ff. 
Oratio    obliqua,   see  Indirect    dis- 
course. 
Ordinal  numbers,  172,   174;  decl. 

of,  179. 
Oro,  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2;  w.  subj. 

or  infin  ,  558,  VI.  3. 
Orpheus,  68. 
Orthography,  2-36. 
Ortus,  w.  abl.,  425,  3. 
-OS,  nouns  in,  61 ;   genit.  of,  83  ; 

gend.,  99,  102. 
-03,  for  is  in  the  genitive,  68. 
-OS  final,  sound  of,  8,  1 ;  quantity, 

625. 
-osus,  adjs.  in,  323. 
Ovid,  versification  of,  697. 
-ox,  genit.  of  nouns  in,  95. 

PAL  AM,  w.  abl.,  437,  2. 
Panthus,  voc.  of,  54,  4. 
Par  and  dispar,  constr.,  391,  2,  4). 
Paragoge,  703,  6. 
Pardoning,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 
Paroemiac  verse,  664. 


IXDEX    OP   SUBJECTS. 


349 


/*ar«,  in  fractions,  174,  1. 

Particeps,  genit.  of,  158,  2  ;  w.  gen., 
399,  (3). 

participles,  196,  II.  4;  as  predicate 
adjs.  w.  suniy  575,  1.  Tenses, 
relative  time,  571.  Agreement 
and  use,  438  and  575  tf.  For 
rel.  clause,  577.  For  sub.  clause, 
— time,  cause,  manner,  means, 
condition,  concession,  purpose, 
578.  For  prin.  clause,  579.  For 
verbal  noun,  580.  W.  negative, 
581. 

Particles,  etymology  of, — Adverbs, 
303  ft*.;  preps.,  806  ft".;  con- 
juncts.,  308  ft;;  interjects.,  312. 

Particles,  syntax  of,  582-590,— Ad- 
verbs, 582  ff. ;  preps.,  586,  432- 
437 ;  conjuncts.,  587  ft". ;  inter- 
jects., 589  ft: 

Partim,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4).  Par- 
tim — ■pariiniy  i'or  para — pars^  461, 
6. 

Partitive  genitive,  396,  III. 

Partitive  appositive,  363,  4. 

Parts  of  speech,  38. 

Parum,  w,  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 

Pm'vus,  compared,  165. 

Passive  voice,  195  ;  passive  constr., 
371,  6. 

Paterfamilias^  decl.  of,  126. 

Patior,  constr.,  551,  II.  1,  2. 

Patrials,  326,  2. 

Patronymics,  316. 

Pause,  caesural,  662. 

Peculiarities  in  conjug.,  234  K. 

Pelagus,  plur.  and  gend.  of,  53, 
54,  4. 

PeneSy  w.  accus.,  433. 

Pentameter,  663,  2. 

Penthemimeris,  656,  2. 

Penults,  quantity  of,  645  ff. 

Per,  in  compds.,  338,  2;  371,  4; 
per,  w.  ace,  433.  Ptr  me  slat, 
499,  1. 

Perceiving,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  551. 

Percontor,  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Perfect,  197;  215,  2;  pres.  and 
hist.,  or  definite  and  indef.,  198  ; 
wanting,  267,  281,  284,  2. 

Perfect,  syntax  of, — in  indie,  471 ; 
def  and  indef,  or  pres.  and  hist,, 
471 ;  of  what  has  ceased  to  be, 
471,  1 ;  w.  pactie,  prope,  471,  2; 


for  Eng.  pres.,  471,  3 ;  w.  post- 
guam,  ut,  ut  primum,  471,  4. 
In  subj.,  478  ;  in  sequence,  480 ; 
after  hist,  tense,  482,  2 ;  533,  1 ; 
in  desires  and  wishes,  488,  2 ;  in 
condition,  509 ;  in  orat.  obi,,  532 
ff. ;  in  infin.,  542  ;  for  pres.,  542, 
2.  In  part.,  574 ;  for  verbal 
noun,  580. 

Perfect  system,  215,  2. 

Perfect  stem,  formation  of,  252  ft*. 

Period,  Latin,  arrangement  of,  605. 

Periphrastic  conjugation,  231  ft". 

Periius,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

Permisceo^  w.  dat.,  385,  5. 

Permitto,  constr.,  551,  II.  2. 

Person,  of  nouns,  44  ;  of  verbs,  199. 

Personal  pronouns,  184 ;  use  of, 
446 ;  reflex,  use  of,  448. 

Personal  endings,  247;  in  perfect, 
247,  2 ;  in  imperative,  247,  3. 

Persuading,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 

Periaedei,  pertacsum  est,  410,  6, 

Pcto,  constr.,  374,  3,  4). 

Ph,4. 

Phalaecian  verse,  691,  V. 

Pherecratean  verse,  689,  II. 

Piffet,  constr.,  410. 

Place,  abl.  of,  421  ft".;  locative,  421  ff. 

Pleasing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 

Plenty,  constr.  of  verbs  and  adjs. 
of,  419,  III. 

Plenm,  w.  gen.  or  abl.,  399,  (3) ;  419. 

Pleonasm,  704,  IL 

Pluperfect,  197 ;  215,  II.— in  indie, 
472 ;  in  letters,  472,  1 ;  for  Eng. 
imp.,  472,  2,  In  subj.,  478 ;  se- 
quence, 480  ;  in  desires  and 
wishes,  488,  2  ;  in  condition, 
510;  after  antequam  and  prius- 
quani,  523,  2 :  in  orat.  obi,  532 ; 
533,  2-4. 

Plural,  44 ;  wanting,  130  ;  with 
change  of  meaning,  132. 

Plus,  without  qtiam,  417,  3. 

Paenitet,  constr.,  410. 

Polysyndeton,  704,  II.  1. 

Pone,  w.  accus.,  433. 

Posco,  w.  two  aces,  or  ace.  and  abl., 
374,  2;  w.  subj.,  558,  VI. 

Position,  long  by,  611 ;  short,  612. 

Positive,  160;  wanting,  166. 

Possessivcs,  185 ;  w.  gen.,  397,  3 ; 
for  gen.,  308,   3 ;    w.  refcrt  and 


350 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


interest,  408,  1,  2);  use  of,  447; 
reflexive,  448. 

Possessor,  dat.  of,  887. 

Post,  sound  of,  8,  1. 

Post,  in  compds.,  338,  2 ;  in  compds. 
w.  dat.,  386.  Post,  in  expressions 
of  time,  427 ;  post,  w.  ace.,  433. 

Posterus,  compared,  163,  3. 

Postremus,  force  of,  442. 

Postridic,  w.  gen.,  411;  w.  aecus,, 
437,  1. 

Postulo,  constr.,  374,  3,  4). 

Polens,  w.  gen.,  399,  (3). 

Potential  subjunctive,  485  If. ;  in 
declar.  sentences,  486,  I. ;  in  de- 
liberative questions,  486,  II. ;  in 
sub.  clauses,  486,  III. ;  of  repeat- 
ed action,  486,  5. 

Potior,  w.  gen.,  409,  3 ;  w.  abl., 
419;  419,  4. 

Prae,  in  compds.  w.  dat.,  386  ;  prae, 
w.  abl,  434. 

Praeditus,  w.  abl.,  419,  3. 

Praeter,  in  compds.,  w.  accus.,  371, 
4 ;  praeter,  w.  accus.,  433. 

Predicate,  347 ;  simple,  353 ;  com- 
plex, 354 ;  compound,  361.  Pred. 
nouns,  355,  362.  Pred.  adjs., 
356 ;  438,  2.  Pred.  gen.,  401 ; 
varieties  of,  402;  verbs  with, 
403 ;  other  constrs.  for,  404. 
Pred.  abl.,  428,  1. 

Prepositions,  306 ;  insep.,  307  ;  in 
compds.,  338,  2.  In  expressions 
of  time  and  space,  378,  1  and  2. 
W.  names  of  places,  379,  1,  2, 
and  4.  Pro  with  abl.,  384,  2,  2). 
Compds.  w.  dat.,  386.  A  or  ab 
w.  abl.  of  agent,  388,  1 ;  414,  5. 
Case  w.  pi-ep.  for  the  dat.,  391, 
2  ;  for  the  gen.,  398,  4  ;  399,  5  ; 
407,  2 ;  410,  4.  Cum  w.  abl.  of 
accompaniment,  414,  7.  Quam 
pro,  417,  6.  W.  abl.  of  place, 
421 ;  of  source  and  separation, 
425 ;  of  time,  426.  Preps,  w. 
cases.  Rule,  432,  434  ff. ;  preps, 
as  adverbs,  436. 

Present,  197;  215,  I., — in  indie, 
466  flf. ;  w.  jamdiu,  etc.,  467,  2  ; 
of  general  truths,  customs,  hist, 
pres.,  467.  In  siibj.,  477.  In 
imperat.,  536.  In  infin.,  541. 
Part,  572. 


Present  perfect,  471,  I. 

Present  stem,  formation  of,  250  ff. 

Present  system  of  forms,  215,  I. 

Priapeian  verse,  695. 

Price,  gen.  of,  396,  IV. ;  abl.  of,  416. 

Pridie,  w.  gen.,  411 ;  w.  ace,  437,  1. 

Primitives  and  derivatives,  313. 

Principal  parts  of  verbs,  213  ff. ; 
259-288.  Prin.  clauses,  345, 
2 ;  in  oratio  obliqua,  530.  Prin. 
elements,  349 ;  tenses,  198,  2. 

Prior,  primus,  166 ;  force  of,  442, 1. 

Priusquam,  w.  indie,  or  subj.,  521, 
523. 

Pro,  in  compds.  w.  dat.,  886,  2 ; 
pro,  w.  abl.  in  defense  of,  384,  2, 
2) ;  joro,  w.  abl.,  434. 

Pro,  quantitv  of,  in  compds.,  654, 4. 

Procid,  w.  abl.,  437,  2. 

Prohihco,  constr.,  499,  1 ;  551,  II.  1. 

Pronouns,  182  ff. ;  pers.,  184;  pos- 
ses., 185;  demon.,  186;  relat, 
187  ;  interrog.,  188  ;  indef.,  189. 

Pronouns,  syntax  of,  445-459, — 
Agreement,  445.  Pers.  and  Pos- 
ses., 446  ff.  Reflex,  use  of,  448 
ff.  Demon.,  450  ff.  Rel,  453. 
Interrog.,  454.     Indcf.,  455. 

Pronunciation  of  Latin,  5-25. 

Prope,  w.  accus.,  433. 

Proper  nouns,  39. 

Propior,  proximus,  1C6 ;  w.  accus., 
391,  2,  2);  433. 

Propius,  w.  accus.,  437,  1. 

Proprins,  constr.,  391,  2,  4) ;  899,  8. 

Propter,  w.  accus.,  433. 

Prosody,  607-701,— Quantitv,  608- 
654.     Versification,  655-701. 

Prospicio,  constr.,  385,  3. 

Prosthesis,  703,  4. 

Provideo,  constr.,  385,  8. 

Providus,  w.  gen.,  899,  (2). 

Proxime,  w.  accus.,  437,  1. 

Proximutn  est,  constr.,  556,  I.  2. 

Proximus,  w.  accus.,  391,  2,  2) ;  433. 

Prudens,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2) ;  w.  ab!., 
399,  5. 

-ps,  genit.  of  nouns  in,  88. 

Pudet,  constr,,  410. 

Punishment,  w.  verbs  of  condemn- 
ing, 410,  5. 

Purgo,  constr.,  410,  7. 

Purpose,  subjunctive  of,  489  ff. ;  w. 
conjimcts.,   490 ;    pure  purpose, 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


351 


491  ;  mixed,  492 ;  peculiarities, 
493  ;  in  rel.  clauses,  600  ff.  In- 
fin.  of  purpose,  553,  V. ;  gerund, 
663,  5;  564,  2;  supine,  669; 
participle,  678,  V. 
Pyrites,  decl.  of,  50. 

QU,  changed,  258. 
Quaero,  constr.,  374,  3,  4). 

Qualis,  qualisamique,  qualisquaHs^ 
187,  6;  qicalis,  interrog.,  188,  5. 

Quality,  characteristic,  genit.  of, 
396,  IV. ;  abl.  of,  428. 

Quaniy  w.  comparatives,  417,  1 ;  w. 
superlatives,  170,  2.  Quampro, 
w.  abl.,  417,  6.  Quam  tit,  w. 
subj.,  496,  2.  Quam  si,  w.  subj., 
603,  506.  Quam  quod,  w.  subj., 
520,  3. 

Quamquam,  w.  indie,  or  subj.,  516, 1,  j 

Qnamvis,  quantumvis,  w.  subj.,  515 
ff. 

Quando,  w.  indie,  or  subj.,  520. 

Quantity,  20  ff. ;  signs  of,  23,  1. 
General  rules  for,  610  ff.  Special, 
613-654;  final  syllables,  613  ff. ; 
increments,  629  ff. ;  deriv.  end- 
ings, 645  ff. ;  stem  syllables,  649 
ff 

QuaiUus,  187,  6 ;  indefinite,  188,  5. 

Quasi,  w.  subj.,  503,  506. 

Qui,  rel.,  interrog.,  indef.,  187  ff. ; 
for  ^Mo,  ^Mflf,  187,  2  ;  188,3.  Use 
of  as  rel.,  interrog.,  indef,  453  ff. 
Qui,  w.  subj.  of  purpose  or  result, 
4S9,  500  ff.  Qui  dicitur,  vacatur, 
453,  7.     Quicumque,  187,  4. 

Quia,  w.  indie,  or  subj.,  520. 

Quidam,  indef.,  191,  455. 

Quidem,  place  in  clause,  602,  III. 

Quilibd,  191 ;  use  of,  458. 

Quin,  w.  subj.,  489,  498. 

Quinam,  188,  4. 

Qulnarius,  712. 

Quippe,  w.  relative,  519,  3, 

Qxiis,  interrog.,  188  ;  indef.  189  ff. ; 
use  of,  454  ff. 

Quis,  for  quihus,  187,  2. 

Quisnam,  188,  4. 

Quispiam,  191  ;  use  of,  455. 

Quisquam,  191 ;  use  of,  457. 

Quisque,  191 ;  w.  abl.  absol.,  431, 
6 ;  use  of,  458 ;  w.  plur.  verb, 
461,  3. 


Quisquis,  187,  4. 

Quitum,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

Quivis,  191  ;  use  of,  468. 

Quo,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4) ;  w.  subj. 
of  purpose,  489,  497. 

Quoad^  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4) ;  w.  in- 
indic.  or  sub.,  521  ff. 

Quod,  expletive,  453,  6 ;  w.  subj., 
520;  clause  w.  ^-uoof  unconnected, 
554,  IV. ;  quod  restrictive,  601,  3. 

Quojus,  qtcoi,  for  cujus,  cui,  187,  2. 

Quominus,  w.  subj.,  499. 

Quoniam,  w.  indie,  or  subj.,  520. 

Quoque,  place  in  the  clause,  602, 
III. 

Qmt,  quotiis,  187,  6;  188,  5. 

Quum,  w.  subj.,  515,  517  ff. ;  w.  in- 
die, 518,  3. 

Rfor  8,  35  ;  258, 1.,  5.  Xouns  in, 
J  55 ;  genit.  of,  77 ;  gender, 
101,  103,  111,  114. 

R,  quantity  of  final  syllables  in,  621. 

Rastrum,  plur.  rastri,  rostra,  143. 

Ratum,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

Re,  red,  338,  3. 

-re,  for  ris,  236. 

Reason,  subj.  of,  517  ff.    See  Cause. 

Recordor,  w.  gen.,  406,  II.;  w. 
accus.,  407,  1 ;  w.  abl.  with  de, 
407,  2. 

Recuso,  constr.,  499,  1,  2. 

Reduplicated  perfects,  261,  270, 
273  ;  quantity  of,  652. 

Refei't,  constr.,  406,  III. ;  408. 

Refetrus,  w.  gen.  or  abl.,  399,  (2) 
and  5. 

Reflexive  use  of  pronouns,  448  ff. 

Regarding,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accus., 
373. 

Regno,  w.  gen.,  409,  3. 

Relative,  187 ;  as  adj.,  445,  8 ;  use 
of,  453. 

Relative  clause,  w.  potential  subj., 
486,  1 ;  w.  subj.  of  desire,  488,  5 ; 
of  purpose,  result,  600 ;  of  result 
after  indefinite  or  general  antecs- 
dents,  after  unus,  solus,  dignu^, 
indignus,  idoneus,  aptics,  and  corn- 
par,  w.  quam,  501,  I.-IV.  ;  w. 
sub.  of  condition,  513  ;  of  conces- 
sion, 515  ;  of  cause,  reason,  517, 
519;  w.  infin.,  531,  1. 

ReJiquHm  est,  constr.,  556,  I.  2. 


352 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


Remaining,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  556, 
III. 

Reminding,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  410. 

jReminiscoi',  w.  gen.,  406,  II. 

Repeated  action,  subj.  of,  486,  5. 

Reposco,  with  two  aces.,  3*74,  2. 

Resisting,  verbs  of,  w.  the  dat.,  385. 

Jiespiiblica,  decl.  of,  126. 

Hestai  ut,  495,  2. 

Result,  subjunctive  of,  489  ff  ;  w. 
conjuncts,,  490  ff. ;  of  pure  re- 
sult, 494  ;  mixed,  495  ;  peculiari- 
ties, 496.  With  relatives,  500. 
See  Relative  clause. 

Reticentia,  704, 1.  3. 

Rhetorical  questions,  530,  2. 

Rhythmic  accent,  659. 

Rideo,  w.  accus.,  371,  3. 

Rivers,  gender  of  names  of,  42. 

Roffo,  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2 ;  w.  subj., 
558,  VI. 

Roman  pronunciation,  15  ff. 

-rs,  genit.  of  nouns  in,  91. 

Rudis,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2);  w.  abl., 
399,  5. 

Rules  of  Syntax,  591. 

Rzis,  constr.,  379,  3 ;  424,  2. 

Ruttim,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

S  SOUND  of,  11  ff.,  17  ff ;  w.  c 
5  or  ^  forms  x,  38;  dropped, 
34;  changed  to  r,  35.  Nouns  in, 
61  ;  genit.  of,  79  ff. ;  gend.,  99  ff. 

Sacer,  compared,  167  ;  w.  dat.  or 
gen.,  391;  399,  3,  3). 

Saepe^  compared,  305,  4. 

Sapio,  w.  accus.,  371,  3. 

Sapphic  vei-se,  664 ;  690,  I. ;  691, 
IV. ;  greater  sapphic,  690,  II. 

Satago^  satagito^  w.  gen.,  409,  5. 

Satis,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 

JSatisfacio,  w.  dat.,  385,  2. 

Saturn,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

Scanning,  668. 

Scazon,  683,  4. 

Sndi,  quantity  of,  651,  2. 

Secundum,  w.  accus.,  433. 

Sed,  se,  338,  3. 

Semi-deponents,  271,  3 ;  283  ;  use 
of,  465,  3. 

Scnex,  compared,  168,  3. 

Sentences,  syntax  of,  343-361 ;  clas- 
sification of,  345  ff. ;  simple,  347 
ff. ;  complex,  357  ff. ;  compound, 


360.  See  also  Declarative,  Ex- 
clamatory, Imperative,  Interroga- 
tive. 

Separation,  abl.  of,  425. 

Sequence  of  tenses,  480  ff.     Rule, 

480.  Application,  481 ;  after  hist, 
pres.,  481,  IV. ;  after  imp.  subj., 

481,  V. ;  after  infin.  or  part,  481, 
VI.  Exceptions,  482  ;  after  perl", 
def.,  482,  1  ;  hist,  tense,  482,  2 ; 
in  orat.  obliqua,  482,  3. 

Sequitur,  w.  subj.  or  infin.,  495,  2 ; 

549,  1. 
Serving,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 
j  Servus,  decl.  of,  51. 
Sese,  184,  7. 
Sestertius,  sestertia,  sestertium,  712 

ff. 
Sexcenti,  indefinite,  174,  4. 
Showing,   verbs   of,  w.  two  aces., 

373. 
-si,  sin,  in  Greek  datives,  68,  5. 
Si  minus,  584,  3. 
Si  non,  and  nisi,  508,  3. 
Silver  age,  706. 
-sim,  in  perfect  subj.,  239,  4. 
Similis,   and   its   compds.,  constr., 

391,  2,  4). 
Simple, — sentence,  347  ff. ;  elements, 

350 ;     subject,     351 ;    predicate, 

353;  words,  313,  1. 
Simul,  w.  abl.,  437,  2. 
Sin,  w.  subjunctive,  503,  507  ff. 
Sin  aliter,  584,  3. 
Sine,  w.  abl.,  434. 
Singular,  44  ;  wanting,  131. 
Sino,  constr.,  551,  II.  1. 
Sitio,  w.  accus.,  371,  3. 
Situm,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 
-so,  in  fut.  perfect,  239,  4 ;  in  fre- 

quen.,  332. 
Solus,  decl.   of,  151  ;  solus  qui,  w. 

subj.,  501,  II. 
Source,  abl.  of,  425. 
Space,  ace.  of,  378. 
Sparing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 
Specification,  ace.  of,  380 ;   genit. 

of,  396,  V. ;  abl.  of,  429. 
Spirants,  3. 
Stanza,    666 ;    stanzas   of  Horace, 

699  ff. 
Statum,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 
Statuo,  constr  ,  558,  II. 
Stem,  46  ;  in  the  five  decls.,  47  ff., 


INDEX   OP   SUBJECTS. 


363 


123.  Stems  in  5,  61  ;  in  i,  62  ff. 
Verb-stem,  201 ;  Pres.  stem,  249 
ff. :  Perf.  stem,  252  ff. ;  supine 
stem,  256  ff. 

Stem-syllables,  quantity  in  primi- 
tives, 649  ff. ;  in  derivats.,  653  ; 
in  compds.,  654. 

Smi,  stiii,  quantity  of,  651,  2. 

S(o,  w.  abl.,  414,  2,  1). 

Striving,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  558, 
III. 

Siicdiosiis,  w.  gen.,  399. 

Sub,  in  compds.,  338,  2  ;  compds.  w. 
dat.,  386.  Sub  w.  ace.  or  abl., 
435. 

Subject, — Simple  subject,  351 ;  com- 
plex, 352 ;  compound,  361.  Subj. 
nom.,  367  ;  omitted,  367,  2.  Subj. 
ace,  375,  545  ;  omitted,  545,  2. 
Infin.  as  subj.,  549.  Clause  as 
subj.,  555  ff. 

Subject  and  object  clauses,  554  ff. 
Indirect  questions,  infin.  clauses, 
subjunctive  clauses,  and  clauses 
with  qtiod,  compared,  554.  Sub- 
ject clauses,  655  ff, ;  interrog., 
555 ;  not  interrog.,  556.  Object 
clauses,  557  ff. ;  interrog.,  557  ; 
not.  interrog.,  558. 

Subjective  genitive,  396,  I. 

Subjunctive,  196;  sj-ntax  of,  483- 
533,— Potential  subj.,  485  ff. 
Subj.  of  desire,  487  ff.  Of  pur- 
pose or  result,  489-501  ;  w.  con- 
juncts.,  489  ff.  ;  w.  relatives,  500 
ff.  Of  condition,  502  ff.  Of 
concession,  515  ff.  Of  cause  and 
time,  517.  ff.  In  indirect  ques- 
tions, 524  ff.  By  attraction,  527. 
In  indirect  discourse — oratio  ob- 
liqua,  528. 

Subordinate, — clauses,  345,  2;  in 
oratio  obliqua,  631.  Sub.  con- 
juncts.,  311,  588;  elements,  349. 

Substantives,  see  Xomis. 

Subfer,  in  compds.  w.  ace,  371,  4. 
Sub/er,  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  435. 

Sui,  decl.  of,  184  ;  use  of,  448  ff. 

Sum,  w.  dat.,  387 ;  w.  pred.  gen., 
403. 

Super,  in  compds.  w.  accus.,  371, 
4 ;  in  compds.  with  dat.,  386. 
Super,  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  435. 

Superlative,  160;  irreg.,  163;  want- 


H     ' 


ing,  168  ff. ;  formed  by  maxime, 
170;  w.  gen.,  396,  2,  3),  (2). 

Supersedco,  386,  2. 

Supervs,  compared,  163,  8. 

Supine,  196,  II. ;  wanting,  266  ff., 
280  ff;  284,  2.     Use  of,  567  ff. 

Supine-stem,  formation  of,  256  ff. 

Supine  system,  216. 

SupplicOy  w.  dat.,  885,  2. 

Supra,  w.  accus.,  433. 

Suspensm,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

Sum,  decl.  of,  185;  usp  of  i^8  if 

Syllables,  13,  18. 

Synaeresis,  669,  II. 

Synaloepha,  Synaplu*?   069,  I.  6. 

Synecdoche,  705,  lU. 

Synesis,  704,  III.  S. 

Synopsis  of  conju^atioii,  216-226. 

S}Tiopsis  of  declension,  69-98. 

Syntax,  343-606,  — of  sentences, 
343-361  ;  of  nouns,  362-437;  of 
adjectives,  438-444  ;  of  pronouns, 
445-459;  of  verbs,  460-581 ;  of 
particles,  582-590.  Rules  of  syn- 
tax, 591.  Arrangement  of  words 
and  clauses,  592-606. 

Systole,  669,  IV. 

T    SOUND  of,  10  ff.,  17  ff. ;  nouns 
,     in,  58,  78;  gender.   111.     7' 

dropped,  36,  258. 
7\  quantity  of  final  syllables  in,  621. 
Tatdel,  constr.,  410. 
Talis,  186,  5. 
Talpa,  gender  of,  48,  5. 
Tamdsi,  w.  subj.,  515;  516,  III. 
Tanquam,    tanquam    si,   w.    eubj., 

503,  506. 
Tantus,  186,  5;  tanittm   abcsf,  496, 

3. 
Teaching,   verbs  of,  w.  two   aces., 

874. 
Ted  for  ie,  184,  8. 
Tcmpero,  constr.,  3S5,  3. 
Tanplum,  decl.  of,  51, 
Temporal  conjunctions,  311;    588, 

Tenses,  197;  prin.  and  hist,  108; 
wanting,  198,  3.  Use  of,  in  indie, 
466  ff. ;  in  subj.,  476  if.  ;  se- 
quence of,  480  ff. ;  in  imperat., 
534 ;  in  infin.,  540 ;  in  part.,  571. 
Use  of,  in  letters,  472,  1. 

Tense-signs,  242  ff. 


354 


IXDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


Tcnus,  w.  gen.,  411 ;  tt.  abl.,  434; 
after  its  case,  434,  2. 

-ter,  adverbs  in,  335. 

Terrae,  locative,  424,  3. 

7''estis  sum^  constr.,  561,  3. 

Tete,  184,  7. 

Tetrameter  verse,  663,  2. 

Tetrapody,  656,  2. 

Tetrastich,  666. 

Th,  4. 

Thesis,  660. 

Threatening,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 

-ticius,  -ticus,  -tivus,  adjs.  in,  325, 
1 ;  328,  5. 

-tim,  adverbs  in,  334,  2. 

Time,  accus.  of,  378 ;  abl.  of,  378, 
2  ;  426  ;  w.  the  prep,  in,  423,  2  ; 
w.  ahhinc,  427.  Time  denoted 
by  ace,  or  abl.  w.  ante  or  post, 
427  ;  by  participle,  578,  I. 

Time,  with  cause  or  purpose,  subj. 
of,  521  ff. 

Timeo,  constr.,  385,  3 ;  492,  4. 

-tio,  nouns  in,  321. 

Tis,  for  tui,  184,  8. 

-to,  for  tor,  in  imperative,  239,  5. 

-to,  in  frequen.,  332. 

-tor,  nouns  in,  321. 

Tot,  totus,  186,  5.  Totus,  decl.  of, 
151. 

Towns,  gender  of  names  of,  42; 
constr., — accus.,  379  ;  with  rirbs 
or  oppidum,  379,  2 ;  abl.  or  loca- 
tive, 421,  II. 

Ti-ans,  in  compds.,  338,  2;  in 
compds.  w.  accus.  371,  4  ;  w.  two 
aces.,  374,  6.    Trails,  w.  ace,  433. 

Transitive  verbs,  193  ;  371,  3. 

Trees,  gender  of  names  of,  42. 

Trimeter,  663,  2. 

Tripody,  656,  2. 

Tristich,  666. 

Trochaic  verse,  679  If. 

-trum,  nouns  in,  320. 

'torn,  nouns  in,  317. 

Tu,  decl.  of,  184. 

Tuli,  quantity  of,  651,  2. 

-tura,  nouns  in,  321. 

-tus,  nouns  in,  318;  adjs.  in,  323. 

Turn,  decl.  of,  185. 


u, 


SOUND  of,  6  ff.,  15 ;  w.  sound 
J  oi  w,  7,  5),  15,  4.  Nouns  in 
w,  116;  gender  of,  116,  118. 


I  U,  quantity  of, — final,  619;  in  in- 
crements, 637,  644. 
-u,  for  ui  in  dat.,  117. 
Ubi,  w.  gcnit.,  396,  2,  4). 
-ubus,  in  dat.  and  abl.,  66,  117. 
Ui,  as  diphthong,  9. 
-uis,  for  us,  in  genit.,  117. 
-ula,  nouns  in,  320,  5. 
-ulentus,  adjs.  in,  323. 
-ulcus,  in  derivatives,  315,  5. 
Ullus,  decl.  of,  151 ;  use  of,  457. 
Ulterior,    tilihmis,  166;    force   of, 

442,  1. 
Ultra,  w.  accus.,  433. 
-ulus,  ula,  ulum,  in  nouns,  315; 

320,  5  ;  in  adjs.,  327  ff. 
-um,  for  arum,  49 ;  for  orum,  52 ; 

in  gen.  plur.  of  3d  dec,  57. 
-undus,  undi,  for  cndrn,  endi,  238. 
Unus,  decl.  of,  151,  175;  unus  qui, 

w.  subj.,  501,  II. 
Unusquisque,  191,  5. 
-ur,  gend.  of  nouns  in.  111,  114. 
-urio,  desideratives  in,  332,  III. 
U3,  for  e  in  voc.  sing.,  52 ;  nouns  in, 

61, 116;  gender.  111,  115  ff.,  118. 

Derivatives  in,  320,  6 ;   321 ;  us, 

final  quantity  of,  627. 
Usque,  w.  accus.,  437,  1. 
Usus,  constr.,  419. 
-ut, nouns  in,  58  ;  gend.,  111. 
Ut,  w.  subj.  of  purpose  or  result, 

489  ff. ;  omitted,  493,  2  ;  w.  qui, 

519,  3. 
Ut  si,  w.  subj.,  503,  506. 
Ut  quisque — ita,  458,  2. 
Uter  utercunque,  151. 
Uterlibet,  uter  que,  utervis,  151.  Uter- 

que,  w.  plur.  verb,  461,  3. 
Uiinam,  w.  subj.  of  desire,  488,  1. 
Ut07',  constr.,  419;  419,  4. 
Utpote,  w.  qui,  519,  3. 
Utrum,  346,  II.  2. 
-utus,  adjs.  in,  323. 
-uus,  verbal  adjs.  in,  328,  5. 
-ux,  genitive  of  nouns  in,  96. 

y   PLACE  supplied  by  u,  2 ;  258, 
,      II.  4. 

Vacuus,  w.  gen.  or  abl.,  399,  (3) 

and  5. 
Yalue,  genit.  of,  396,  IV, 
Vannus,  gender  of,  53. 
Velutj  vclut  si,  w.  subj.,  503,  506. 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


355 


Verbal  inflections,  table  of,  218  ff. 

Verbs,  etymology  of — Classes, 
voices,  moods,  tenses,  etc.,  192- 
203.  Paradigms,  204-214.  Verbal 
inflections,  213  ff.  Synopsis,  216- 
230.  Periphrastic  conj.,  231  ff. 
Contractions  and  peculiarities, 
234-239.  Comparative  view  of 
conjs.,  240.  Analysis  of  verbal 
endings,  241  ff. ;  tense  signs,  242 
ff. ;  mood  signs,  244  ff. ;  personal 
endings,  247.  Formation  of 
stems,  249  ff.  Euphonic  changes 
in  stems,  258.  Classification  of 
verbs,  259-288.  Irreg.  verbs, 
289-296.  Defect.,  297.  Impers., 
298-301.  Deriv.,  330  ff.  Com- 
pound,   341.      Irregularities    of 


special  verbs. 


See  also  Traii- 


sitive,  Intrans.y  Finite,  Deponent, 
Semi-depon.,  Intpersonal,  Fre- 
quent., Incept.,  Desiderat.,  Dimin- 
utive. 

Verbs,  syntax  of,  460,  581, — Agree- 
ment, 460  ff.  Omitted,  367,  3  ; 
460,  3.  Voices,  464  ft'.  Tenses 
of  Indie,  466  ff.  Use  of  Indie, 
474.  Tenses  of  subj.,  476  ff.  Use 
of  Subj.,  483-533.  Imperat.,  534 
ff.  Infin.,  539-553.  Subject  and 
object  clauses,  554  ff.  Gerund, 
559-566.  Supine,  567  ff.  Parti- 
ciples, 571-581. 

Verb-stem,  201,  249. 

Vereor,  constr.,  492,  4. 

Verisimile  est,  verum  est,  constr., 
556,  I.  2. 

Vero,  place  in  clause,  602,  III. 

Verses,  661 ;  names  of,  663  ff. 

Versification,  655,— Feet,  656  ff. 
Verses,  661  ff.  Figures  of  proso- 
dy, 669.  Varieties  of  verse,  670  ff. 

Versus,  \Y.  accus.,  433. 


Vescor,  constr.,  419;  419,  4. 

Vestras,  185,  8. 

Vesfri,  vestrum,  396,  III.  1 ;  446,  3. 

Veto,  constr.,  551,  II.  1. 

Vetus,  compared,  167. 

Vicinus,  w.  dat.  or  gen.,  391,  1  ; 
399,  3. 

Vir,  decl.  of,  51,  4. 

Virgil,  versification  of,  696. 

Vocative,  52,  68,  3.    Syntax  of,  360. 

Voices,  195.  See  also  under  Vcrlif, 
si/ntax  of. 

]'ohns,  idiomatic  use  of  dat.,  387,  3. 

Volo,  constr.,  551,  II.  1. 

-volufl,  compds.  in,  compared,  164. 

Voti  damnari,  410,  5  (1). 

A'owels,  3, 1. ;  sounds  of,  6  ff.,  15  ff. ; 
changes  in,  27  ff.  Variable  vow- 
els, 57,  2. 

W    PLACE  supplied  by  w,  2. 
9      Want,  constr.  of  verbs  and 
adjs.  of,  419. 
Warning,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  668. 

VI. 
Weights,  Eoman,  714. 
Winds,  gender  of  names  of,  42. 
Wishing,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  551. 
Words,  arrangement  of,  592. 


X 


SOUND  of,  11  ff. ;  nouns  in,  59, 
,      92  ff. ;  gender  of,  105,  108. 


YONLY    in    Greek    words,    2. 
;      Nouns  in,  73;  gender,  111. 
Y,  quantity  of, — final,  617;  in  in- 
crements, 638. 
-ys,  nouns  in,  68,  2;   gender  of, 

107  ;  quantity  of  ys  final,  C28. 
-yx,  nouns  in,  97. 

ZONLY  in  Greek  words,  2. 
i      Zeugma,  704,  I.  2. 


TABLE 

Showing  the  corresponding  articles  in  the  two  editions. 


Old.  Nbw. 

1-12 1-12 

13 

14^16 19 

17 13,18 

18,19 14,  18 

15-17 

20-23 20-23 

24 23,1 

25 

26 24,  25 

27 25,4 

28 25,5 

26-36 

29 87 

SO 38 

31 39 

32 40 

33 41 

34 41,1 

35 42 

36 ....43 

37 44 

38 45 

39 46 

40 47 

41 46,  1 

42 48 

42,  3 49 

43 50 

44.. 48,  5 

45 51 

45,5 52 

46 54 

47 53 

48 55 

49 56 

50 57-59 

50 63,  64 

51 60,  61 

62,  66 

52-54 57,  63,  67 

55-57 

58 69 

59 70 

60 71 

61 72 

62 73 

63. 74 


Old.  New. 

64 75 

65 76 

66 77 

67 78 

68 79 

69 80 

70 81 

71 82 

72 83 

73 84 

74 85 

75 86-88 

76 89-91 

77 92 

78 93 

79 94 

80 95 

81 96 

82 97 

83 98 

84 67,1 

85,87 62 

86 68,  3 

88 67 

89 65 

90 67,  58,  2,  66,  68,5 

91-98 68 

99-104 99-104 

105 

105 106 

106,107 107 

108-116..: 108-116 

116,4 117 

117 119 

118 118 

119 120 

120 121 

121-123 122,  123 

124r-148 124-148 

148 149,150 

149 151 

150 152 

151 153 

152 : 154 

153 155 

154-158 156-158 

159-174 159-174 

175 175,  176 


TABLE    OF    OLD    AND   NEW    AKTICLES. 


357 


Old,  Nbw. 

176 175 

177-198 177-198 

199,  200 199 

•JOl 200 

■JM2 201 

-)3 202 

-01 203,  204 

•Jo-)-i'12 205-212 

L'lS 221 

214 222 

■z\r> 223 

•JIG 217 

217 218 

218 219 

219 224 

220 220 

221 225 

222 226 

223 227 

224 228 

225 229 

226 230 

227,228,  230 231 

229,  231 232 

232,  233 233 

234-239 234^239 

240 213 

241 215 

24^-247 213,  216,  240 

241-248 

242 249-251 

248 258 

249 221 

250 261,1 

251-254 252-255 


Old.  New, 

255-258 256,  257 

259,260 214 

261 259 

262 260 

263 262 

264 261 

265 263 

266 264 

266,11 265 

266,  III 268 

267 266 

268 267 

269 269,  270,111. 

270 270,11. 

271 270,1. 

272 271 

273 272 

273,11 279 

273,111 272,  II.,  273,  III. 

274 280 

275 281 

276 274-278 

277,278 276,278,3 

279 273,11. 

280 273,1. 

281 282 

282 283 

283 284 

284 285,  286 

285 287 

286 288 

287 289 

288-290 290 

291-721 291-721 


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